企业异质性、国内市场贸易成本与扩大中国内需——Melitz模型在中国主要制造业的理论扩展及经验分析

本文扩展了Melitz的异质性企业模型,通过对我国主要制造业2001-2010年面板数据的分析,实证检验了影响我国国内市场需求的主要因素。研究结果表明,我国确实存在"生产率悖论",较高的国内市场贸易成本对国内市场需求产生不利影响,扩大内需关键是降低过高的国内市场贸易成本。     

FOB 盛行之谜：贸易成本与异质性企业的 贸易术语选择

在《2010年国际贸易术语解释通则》规定的11种贸易术语中,企业收汇风险较大的FOB具有最高的使用频率。本文通过拓展现有异质性企业贸易模型,阐述了贸易成本对企业贸易术语选择行为的影响机制。该模型表明,二元经济结构、要素市场不完善和加工贸易居多是导致出口企业倾向于使用FOB成交的主要原因,贸易术语多元化能够通过增加企业出口机会改善社会福利水平,及时调整企业内外销的相对贸易成本对降低出口收汇风险和平衡我国内外需求水平至关重要。     

贸易成本、技术选择和外资出口企业转型——基于异质性企业贸易理论的视角

外资企业在我国加工贸易企业中占大多数.通过将异质性外资企业的转型决策引入标准异质性企业贸易模型,本文从贸易成本角度阐释了异质性外商投资企业技术选择的理论机制,模型表明:过度的可变贸易成本补贴会减小低效率企业转型激励,而适度的研发补贴却能鼓励外资企业转型升级.利用中国工业企业层面数据,研究发现,在控制了企业资本劳动比的情形下,外资出口企业中出口密集度较大的企业、加工贸易出口企业以及投资于劳动密集型行业的企业技术水平较低.通过支付更多的固定成本,外资企业能够通过使用高端技术进行出口转型.该检验结果与模型预测保持一致.本文的政策含义在于,政府应该控制对外资出口企业的可变成本优惠,补贴外资出口企业的固定研发成本,培育高质量的人力资本以提高利用外资的综合优势,辅助外资出口企业转型.     

国际市场进入模式选择与企业异质性：一个文献综述

生产率差异是决定企业国际市场进入模式选择的重要因素。本文通过梳理近年来异质性企业贸易与投资文献,阐释了企业如何在贸易、水平型FDI、垂直型FDI和复合型FDI之间进行选择以及选择FDI的企业会采取何种进入方式的问题。现有的异质性企业贸易与投资模型较好地解释了发达国家的经验事实,但在企业异质性的来源、消费者需求结构以及发展中国家的市场扭曲等方面,异质性企业贸易和投资模型仍需进一步深入研究。     

贸易自由化、企业异质化与外向型经济

本文在新经济地理学自由资本模型的基础上纳入异质性企业贸易理论,构建了包含贸易自由化、企业异质性以及外向型经济的空间一般均衡模型。通过数理分析和数值模拟,本文研究发现:(1)企业生产效率的差异形成"自我选择效应",即生产效率最高的企业选择对外直接投资、生产效率次之企业选择国际贸易、生产效率较低企业选择供应本地市场,从而对外贸易与外商直接投资可同时大幅增长;(2)当企业生产效率以及市场进入成本存在异质性时,Krugman(1991)所述的完全核心-边缘结构可能并不存在,取而代之的是不完全集聚的核心-边缘结构;(3)无论是贸易自由化还是企业异质化,都能有效地促进贸易以及外商直接投资额的增加,并且贸易自由化和企业异质化程度越高,对外贸易以及外商直接投资额越大。     

出口与异质性对中国企业工资差异的影响:基于HIR模型的理论拓展及实证分析

本文通过将资本使用成本异质性引入HIR模型,分析了出口、生产率异质性、劳动筛选与资本使用成本异质性对中国企业工资差异的影响,并用1998-2007年的工业企业数据进行了实证检验,然后对拓展模型进行了模拟。结果表明:异质性对企业工资影响显著,会引起工资差异;控制了企业的生产率异质性和劳动筛选与资本使用成本异质性后,中国企业存在2.8%的出口工资溢价,但出口企业间的工资差异程度要小于非出口企业;出口工资溢价程度与出口固定成本正相关。     

新新贸易理论及其进展

21世纪初诞生的新新贸易理论突破了新古典贸易理论和新贸易理论以产业为对象的研究范畴,将分析变量进一步细化到企业,以异质企业的贸易投资作为研究重点.企业异质性有两种形式,由于产业内部不同企业生产率的差异而产生的异质性以及企业组织形式差异而产生的异质性,这两种异质性紧密相连.新新贸易理论通过异质企业贸易模型的建立,阐明了现实中只有部分企业选择出口和对外直接投资的原因;通过企业内生边界模型的建立和拓展,将产业组织理论和契约理论的概念融入贸易模型,很好地解释了公司内贸易模式,并在企业全球化生产研究领域进行了理论创新.     

异质性企业理论综述与启示

异质性企业理论是在评判的继承传统贸易理论和新贸易理论的基础上形成的,其解释了异质性因素对企业贸易模式的影响,本文对异质性企业理论的基本模型和理论发展进行了归纳和评述,最后分析了其对我国对外贸易的几点启示.     

企业知识偏好异质性与企业国际化路径选择

本文在对异质性企业贸易模型文献梳理的基础上，做了一个假设研究，认为异质性企业贸易模型中存在着“生产率阈值重叠”现象。“生产率阈值重叠”现象引发了笔者对异质性企业贸易模型的进一步思考，在“生产率阈值重叠”区间内，生产率不是唯一决定企业国际化路径选择的因素，必定有其他一些因素决定了企业的国际化路径选择。在这个分析的基础上引入了“企业知识偏好”的概念，认为在企业层面的国际化路径决策不仅是生产率起到了决定性作用，“企业知识偏好”也会影响企业的国际化路径选择。     

贸易便利化、中间品进口与企业出口增加值

本文将中国工业企业数据库和中国海关贸易数据库相匹配,采用双受限Tobit模型检验了贸易便利化如何通过中间品进口提升企业出口增加值。研究发现,贸易便利化对企业出口增加值存在显著的正向促进作用,其机制主要是通过中间品进口种类增加产生的技术溢出效应、中间品进口成本下降产生的成本节约效应、上游中间品进口产生的竞争效应等实现的。进一步研究发现,贸易便利化对企业出口增加值的影响存在异质性,表现为非国有企业、一般贸易企业和资本密集型企业受到的影响更大。本文认为,应该加强基础设施建设,营造良好的制度环境,积极推进贸易便利化,扩大进口中间品种类,降低进口中间品价格,抑制上游中间品企业垄断,从而提高企业出口增加值,实现开放型经济高质量发展。     

Managerial incentives and the international organization of production

We develop a model in which the heterogeneous firms in an industry choose their modes of organization and the location of their subsidiaries or suppliers. We assume that the principals of a firm are constrained in the nature of the contracts they can write with suppliers or employees. Our main result concerns the sorting of firms with different productivity levels into different organizational forms. We use the model to examine the implications of falling trade costs for the relevant prevalence of outsourcing and foreign direct investment (FDI).     

Foreign acquisition and post-privatization exit of state-owned firms

This paper analyzes the impact of foreign and domestic ownership on the exit rates of privatized state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in transitional countries. The exit of privatized SOEs can have a profound impact on employment and on the development of local economies of transitional countries. An oligopoly model that incorporates country-level trade costs and individual SOE's productivity is developed to assess the exit of SOEs under either foreign or domestic ownership. The model shows that market competition between firms can lead to liquidation of the SOE by a domestic firm when trade costs increase. When the productivity of SOE is high, neither foreign nor domestic firm will liquidate. The predictions of the model are tested using firm-level privatization data from Central and Eastern Europe. By controlling for productivity, trade costs, and other attributes of SOEs after privatization, it is found that foreign ownership significantly reduces the probability of SOE's exit as compared to domestic ownership. Furthermore, there is evidence that as trade costs increase, the exit probability of domestically owned SOEs increases and the exit probability of foreign-owned SOEs declines.     

The decision to export: Firm heterogeneity,sunk costs,and spatial concentration

Integrating perspectives of the Uppsala model of internationalization process, international new ventures and trade theories of heterogeneous firms, this paper develops a dynamic discrete-choice model of export decisions by a profit-maximizing firm. Empirical analyses based on a panel data set of Chinese firms show that sunk costs, productivity, firm size, foreign ownership, industry competition and spatial concentration are positively associated with the decision to export, while state ownership has a negative association with the probability of exporting. However, we find that the relationships are not always uniform and depend on firm-specific idiosyncrasies. The results show that foreign-invested firms and large firms (regardless of ownership) rely on productivity performance related advantages for expanding overseas, while domestic firms, especially small- and medium-sized enterprises, build competitive advantage by leveraging agglomeration economies and the associated spillovers. Our results highlight the role of firm heterogeneity, sunk costs and spatial concentration in shaping the export behavior of firms.     

Taxation of Foreign Profits with Heterogeneous Multinational Firms

This paper analyses optimal taxation of foreign profits using a model with heterogeneous multinational firms that serve a foreign market through exports or foreign direct investment (FDI). If a firm switches from exporting to FDI, domestic activity and tax payments may decrease, stay constant or even rise because of intra‐firm trade. It turns out that, in contrast to recent claims, in all three cases, the optimal tax system implies full taxation after deduction of foreign tax payments. If the country accounts for the effects of its policy on the foreign price level, the case for taxing foreign income becomes even stronger. However, the globally optimal tax system may require exemption of foreign income from tax.     

A simple model of firm heterogeneity, international trade, and wages

This paper presents a general equilibrium trade model in which homogeneous firms choose a technology from a set of competing technologies and choose employees from a set of workers of heterogeneous skill. In equilibrium, the interaction between the characteristics of competing technologies, international trade costs, and the availability of workers of heterogeneous skill gives rise to firm heterogeneity. The model generates several of the stylized facts concerning the (apparent) superiority of firms that engage in international trade relative to those that do not and has implications for the effect of international trade on the skill premium and on observed industry-level productivity.     

Where Do Firms Export,How Much and Why?

The empirical finding that exporting firms are more productive on average than non‐exporters has provoked a large theoretical literature based on models such as Melitz ( 2003 ), where more productive firms are more likely to overcome costs associated with trade. This paper investigates how closely the productivity heterogeneity framework fits the data from a firm‐level survey that includes information on export destinations and firm characteristics such as productivity. We find a high degree of unpredictable idiosyncratic participation in export markets by firms and a relatively weak positive correlation between the extent of a firm's export market participation and its export sales. We find that a small number of standard gravity variables provide a close fit to the country‐level determinants of trade but that greater variation results in more difficulty in explaining firm‐specific factors driving exporting behaviour. We also illustrate some elements of the dynamics over time in firm exporting patterns by destination. We show that lagged exporting activity has a significant effect on a firm's current exporting profile.     

Learning to export: Export growth and the destination decision of firms

I find evidence that the geographic expansion of firm exports occurs slowly over time and that a large share of export growth is due to incumbent exporters entering new destinations. New exporters enter large countries and destinations with characteristics similar to their domestic market. Less similar, distant or less developed countries are entered by firms already exporting to other destinations. I formulate a dynamic general equilibrium model to test if these patterns are due to firms learning how to export (as other recent empirical findings have suggested) or other factors considered in the literature. In this model, heterogeneous firms experience learning in the form of market entry costs that depend on export history. Using Russian firm level data, I find that learning plays a significant role in explaining the observed entry patterns, which standard trade models cannot account for.     

Do trade policy differences induce sorting? Theory and evidence from Bangladeshi apparel exporters

This paper provides a new heterogeneous firm model for trade where firms differ in their productivity and experience different market demand shocks. The model incorporates the variations in trade policy, trade preferences, and the rules of origin needed to obtain them that are faced by Bangladeshi garment exporters to the US and EU. We estimate firm's productivity using an extension of the Olley Pakes procedure that accounts for the biases arising from both demand shocks and productivity being unobserved. Predictions of the model are then tested non-parametrically and are shown to be supported empirically.     

Tariff and quota equivalence in the presence of asymmetric information

This paper investigates the equivalence of optimal import tariffs and quotas in a Cournot duopoly model when firms have more information about demand than the domestic government. I consider a screening model in which the government offers the domestic firm different contracts from which to choose. I show that the availability and cost of obtaining correct information from the firm depends upon the choice of trade policy instrument. Asymmetric information thus destroys the equivalence of tariffs and quotas, which prevails under complete information, and has a profound impact on how government, firms, and consumers rank different trade policy instruments.     

Firm heterogeneity and international trade in services

This study, using panel data on Japanese firms, analyses the relationship between services trade and firm heterogeneity. It finds that the number of firms engaged in services trade is far less than that engaged in goods trade. Further, the productivity of services traders is higher than that of domestic firms and goods trading firms, whereas the productivity of firms that export services beyond the boundary of their firm groups is higher than that of those that export services only to their affiliate firms. These results suggest that only productive firms can engage in services trade by incurring the relatively large fixed costs.