Macroeconomic responses of emerging market economies to oil price shocks: An analysis by region and resource profile

We analyze the impact of oil price shocks on the macroeconomic fundamentals in emerging economies in three regions that have different resource endowments. The existing literature on emerging economies remains inconclusive on how regional factors and resource characteristics affect the response of macroeconomic variables to oil price shocks. We show that (1) exports in Europe and Central Asia are driven by oil more than East Asia and the Pacific and that (2) policy makers in East Asia and the Pacific should be concerned about real exchange appreciation following a positive oil shock to mitigate losses in the non-oil export market. Analysis by resource endowment further reveals that, in less-resource-intensive economies, an oil price shock causes large variations in consumption and has a negative and persistent impact on the real gross domestic product (GDP). In mineral-exporting economies, real GDP and interest rates are driven largely by oil price shocks. The response of real GDP in mineral-exporting economies is short lived. In oil-exporting economies, only real GDP has a large variation in response to oil price shocks. Our findings highlight the need for customized policy responses to oil price shocks, depending on resource endowments, as we show that a “one size fits all" policy does not exist.     

Regional or global shock? A global VAR analysis of Asian economic and financial integration

This study employs a global vector autoregressive (GVAR) model to empirically investigate the viability of regional monetary arrangements in Asia. In marked contrast to the previous studies, we analyzed whether recent regional economic and financial integration in Asia were driven by global (U.S.) shock or regional (Japanese and Chinese) shock, using the GVAR model that allows global inter-linkages between domestic and foreign variables. By estimating generalized impulse responses of Asian economies’ real outputs and interest rates to global and regional shocks, we found that the Chinese shock exerted more real and financial influences on Asian economies than the U.S. shock. Another regional shock, i.e., the Japanese shock, had a far smaller influence on Asian economies. The relative importance of regional shocks originating from China needs to be considered when establishing regional monetary arrangements in Asia.     

Oil exports and the Iranian economy

This paper presents an error-correcting macroeconometric model for the Iranian economy estimated using a new quarterly data set over the period 1979Q1–2006Q4. It builds on a recent paper by the authors, Esfahani, Mohaddes, and Pesaran (in press), which develops a theoretical long-run growth model for major oil exporting economies. The core variables included in this paper are real output, real money balances, inflation, exchange rate, oil exports, and foreign real output, although the role of investment and consumption are also analysed in a sub-model. The paper finds clear evidence for the existence of two long-run relations: an output equation as predicted by the theory and a standard real money demand equation with inflation acting as a proxy for the (missing) market interest rate. The results show that real output in the long run is influenced by oil exports and foreign output. However, it is also found that inflation has a significant negative long-run effect on real GDP, which is suggestive of economic inefficiencies and is matched by a negative association between inflation and the investment–output ratio. Finally, the results of impulse responses show that the Iranian economy adjusts quite quickly to the shocks in foreign output and oil exports, which could be partly due to the relatively underdeveloped nature of Iran's financial markets.     

Impact of China's currency valuation and labour cost on the US in a trade and exchange rate model

Ricardian dynamic general equilibrium analyses show that under free trade arrangements a low income country with lower wage cost and large endowment of labour has comparative advantage in trade. Efficiency gains from this enhance economic growth and welfare of households simultaneously in both low income and advanced economies. Theoretical predictions are empirically validated here with structural VAR analysis based on quarterly data over the time period 1995:1 to 2009:1 on China's relative wage cost, interest rate differential, real effective exchange rate (REER), relative GDP and the US current account balance. It is shown how the relative prices of labour, capital and the currency affect the economic activity in China and current account balance in the US. With free capital inflows and outflows and restrictions on labour mobility, comparative advantage of China and the trade deficit of the US will both be minimised if China allows real appreciation of the Yuan and complete adjustment in prices. Higher production cost and prices in China could reduce welfare of Chinese households and the trade imbalance of the US, while higher relative GDP of China lowers the current account balance for the US.     

What is behind the real appreciation of the accession countries’ currencies?: An investigation of the PPI-based real exchange rate

In the paper, we calculate real equilibrium exchange rates (EER) for EU accession countries and compare these with the actual exchange rate movements since the mid-1990s. The real equilibrium exchange rates are derived from models of macroeconomic balance and tested for econometrically. It is found that productivity increases can be regarded as one source of the observed PPI-based real appreciation of the accession countries’ currencies. These productivity gains experienced in the process of economic catch-up imply an increased capacity to produce high-quality export goods and are a key driving force of exports. To a large extent real appreciation can, therefore, be viewed as an equilibrium phenomenon.     

预防性持有、攀比效应与亚洲经济体外汇储备囤积——基于1980～2009年的数据分析

亚洲经济体持有的外汇储备远超出了经验值范围。亚洲经济体为何囤积外汇储备?本文构建面板数据模型剖析亚洲经济体囤积外汇储备的动机。实证结果表明,亚洲经济体外汇储备囤积行为存在着几种动机:从存量上看,交易性动机和基于预防资本外逃的预防性动机作用最大,但前者比较稳定,后者是驱动外汇储备变动的最重要因素;攀比动机和基于预防经常项目波动的预防性动机存在着上升的趋势;持储动机在不同发展程度和不同汇率制度经济体中也存在着显著的差异性。     

人民币汇率调整与内外失衡的影响机理分析

本文运用协整分析建立误差修正模型,重点分析了我国经济内外均衡与人民币汇率调整机制之间的关系。研究表明:我国经济内外部均衡变量与人民币实际有效汇率之间存在着协整关系,短期内,对人民币实际有效汇率产生影响的主要是贸易顺差、货币供给量和经济增长因素。长期来看,决定长期汇率均衡走势的是实体因素(外汇储备、经济增长和货币供应量)。价格因素(通货膨胀率和利率)在短期内可能对汇率影响较大,但长期内不再重要。     

Equilibrium Exchange Rates in Transition Economies: Taking Stock of the Issues*

Abstract. In this paper, we present an overview of a number of issues relating to the equilibrium exchange rates of transition economies of the former soviet bloc. In particular, we present a critical overview of the various methods available for calculating equilibrium exchange rates and discuss how useful they are likely to be for the transition economies. Amongst our findings is the result that the trend appreciation usually observed for the exchange rates of these economies is affected by factors other than the usual Balassa–Samuelson effect, such as the behaviour of the real exchange rate of the open sector and regulated prices. We then consider three main sources of uncertainty relating to the implementation of an equilibrium exchange rate model, namely: differences in the theoretical underpinnings, differences in the econometric estimation techniques, and differences relating to the time‐series and cross‐sectional dimensions of the data. The ensuing three‐dimensional space of real misalignments is probably a useful tool in determining the direction of a possible misalignment rather than its precise size.     

人民币实际有效汇率的分解和马歇尔—勒纳条件的修正

马歇尔-勒纳条件是探讨货币贬值改善贸易收支的规律,本文根据人民币实际有效汇率的特点,把它分解为美元有效汇率和人民币对美元汇率之积形式,在此基础之上,本文重新考察货币贬值改善贸易收支的条件,对传统的马歇尔-勒纳条件进行修正。从我们研究中可以看出美元实际有效汇率变化对马歇尔-勒纳条件修正的重要作用,这包括美元有效汇率对人民币汇率弹性和人民币在美元有效汇率中的权重的两种影响。另一方面,即使人民币实际有效汇率贬值存在“J”曲线效应,人民币对美元实际汇率贬值,“J”曲线是否存在还要依赖一定的条件。本文实证研究结果显示出口（或进口）与人民币对美元实际汇率、美元实际有效汇率指数和外国收入（或国内收入）之间存在着显著的协整关系,美元实际有效汇率和人民币对美元实际汇率也存在显著的协整关系。从弹性的变化来看,修正的马歇尔-勒纳条件成立,同时人民币对美元实际汇率贬值有利于改善贸易收支,美元实际有效汇率贬值会恶化中国贸易收支。而对“J”曲线效应的实证研究显示无论是人民币实际有效汇率,还是人民币对美元实际汇率贬值和美元实际有效汇率贬值,我国“J”曲线效应均不显著。     

Plant Scale and Exchange‐Rate‐Induced Productivity Growth

This paper examines the impact of exchange rate movements on firm‐level productivity through changes in the scale of production. We employ plant‐level data to examine whether, and in what direction, exchange rate movements affect the scale of production, and how these changes in scale influence productivity. The paper finds that a real appreciation of the domestic currency reduces shipments and this negative effect is larger for exporters (both domestic and foreign owned). The paper also finds evidence that the appreciation‐induced reduction of scale negatively affects productivity at the plant level. This scale effect more than offsets any potential gains from the appreciation‐induced reduction in the price of imported inputs.     

人民币实际有效汇率波动对外汇储备影响的实证研究:1996～2004

本文首先简单回顾了外汇储备需求函数的研究文献;然后利用我国1996~2004年的月度数据对我国的外汇储备需求函数进行详尽的实证研究,结论表明,消费品零售总额、人民币实际有效汇率指数及其波动性、国内外利率差、进口依存度、进口的波动性均显著影响我国的外汇储备需求;最后本文从汇率水平的调整、汇率浮动区间的扩大、利率市场化以及稳定进口波动性等方面,为缓解我国外汇储备的快速增长提出了相应的政策建议。     

Production fragmentation and trade integration: East Asia in a global context

This paper examines the implications of international production fragmentation for global and regional trade patterns, with special emphasis on countries in East Asia. It is found that, while trade in parts and components (fragmentation trade) has generally grown faster than total world manufacturing trade, the degree of dependence of East Asia on this new form of international specialization is proportionately larger than in North America and Europe. International production fragmentation has certainly played a pivotal role in the continuing dynamism of the East Asian economies and increasing intra-regional economic interdependence. There is, however, no evidence to suggest that this new form of international exchange has contributed to reducing the region's dependence on the global economy. On the contrary, growth dynamism based on vertical specialization depends inexorably on extra-regional trade in final goods, and this dependence has in fact increased over the years.     

人民币汇率变动对我国外贸产业的影响

在世界经济蓬勃发展的今天,我国的经济也是随着世界经济的发展呈现出一片良好的态势。因此我国在国际中的地位也不断提高,同时人民币的地位也水涨船高。 早在2002年,亚洲经济快速发展,中国成为了亚洲经济发展的“领头羊”,在中国周边国家更是形成了“人民币地带”时,日本政府便曾经提出议案要求七国集团通过类似于“广场协议”的文件,以迫使人民币升值。而在2006年中美贸易顺差达到1442.6亿美元,美国便以中美巨额贸易顺差造成损失为由,要求人民币升值。现如今2014年,人民币已经多次升值,今年中美汇率更是首次破六,使人民币升值达到了新高。 作为我国GDP的一个极为重要的组成部分,外贸产业一直都受到人民币汇率变化带来的巨大影响。本文将通过我国人民币汇率变动而分析出人民币升值对外贸产业带来的影响,以及总结出外贸产业应对人民币汇率变动带来的后果的措施。     

Heterogeneity dependence between oil prices and exchange rate: Evidence from a parametric test of Granger causality in quantiles

This paper re-examines the nexus between crude oil price and exchange rate by investigating their heterogeneity dependence structure within the framework of Granger causality in quantiles for a sample of developed and emerging economies (namely UK, Canada, Brazil, Russia, Mexico, Norway, India, Japan, South Africa, South Korea and European Union (EU)). The results indicate no distinct causality between the crude oil price changes and the real exchange rate returns for all countries besides Russia at the median of the conditional distribution. Besides, the crude oil price changes influence the exchange rate returns in all countries, except Norway and EU, particularly around the tails of the conditional distributions of exchange rate returns. This suggests that the oil price changes influence the real exchange rate returns when the real exchange rate returns are either in extreme appreciation or depreciation. Moreover, the crude oil price movement can be explained by the exchange rate returns for most oil importers only when the crude oil market is bearish or bullish. By contrast, the real exchange rate can permanently affect the crude oil price for most oil-importing countries irrespective of the crude oil market's state. Finally, our findings provide an essential reference for managing the extreme risk dependence between the exchange rate market and the crude oil market.     

人民币汇率传递的不对称性及其对中国进出口的影响

从汇率传递不对称性角度分析了汇率变动对进出口的影响和对马歇尔-勒纳条件的影响;利用中国进出口的国别面板数据进行实证检验,得出人民币汇率变动对进口的影响大于对出口的影响,人民币汇率贬值对进出口影响大于升值对进出口的影响;根据汇率传递的不完全性和不对称性分析了人民币汇率变动对中国进出口影响的有限性和不对称性的原因。     

An elasticity approach to the analysis of Romanian foreign trade policy during the years of transition

This paper focuses on the effect of exchange rate variations on the economic evolution of a country in transition, facing inflation, output decrease and negative external shocks; the particular case of Romania is considered. The theoretical part is linked to the Fleming-Mundell model for an open economy, but additional assumptions of price mobility and capital immobility are introduced. The usual interest rate versus output graphic framework is switched from one to another, which plots the exchange rate (or real exchange rate) versus output; the author considers that such a representation fits the behavior of an economy in transition towards a market-based system better. A main role, according to this interpretation, is played by the exchange rate elasticities of imports and exports, which influence the images of the equilibria on the goods market and the balance of payment (the IS and BOP curves' slopes). Finally, an empirical analysis is made, as an example, on the Romanian energy imports data series; the attempts to calculate the exchange rate elasticity may be considered as reliable only in the short term. In order to estimate the global exchange rate elasticities of imports and exports, some aggregations of partial sectorial results might be a possible solution. In the Romanian case, the resulting elasticities seem to be lower than for other countries; this poses the question as to the effectiveness of exchange rate policies in managing the Romanian economy.     

CCE estimation of factor‐augmented regression models with more factors than observables

This paper considers estimation of factor‐augmented panel data regression models. One of the most popular approaches towards this end is the common correlated effects (CCE) estimator of Pesaran (Estimation and inference in large heterogeneous panels with a multifactor error structure. Econometrica, 2006, 74, 967–1012, 2006). For the pooled version of this estimator to be consistent, either the number of observables must be larger than the number of unobserved common factors, or the factor loadings must be distributed independently of each other. This is a problem in the typical application involving only a small number of regressors and/or correlated loadings. The current paper proposes a simple extension to the CCE procedure by which both requirements can be relaxed. The CCE approach is based on taking the cross‐section average of the observables as an estimator of the common factors. The idea put forth in the current paper is to consider not only the average but also other cross‐section combinations. Asymptotic properties of the resulting combination‐augmented CCE (C³E) estimator are provided and tested in small samples using both simulated and real data.     

What Drives Oil Prices? Emerging Versus Developed Economies

We explore the role of demand from emerging and developed economies as drivers of the real price of oil. Using a FAVAR model that identifies shocks from different regions of the world, we find that demand from emerging economies (most notably from Asian countries) is more than twice as important as demand from developed countries in accounting for the fluctuations in the real oil price and in oil production. Furthermore, geographical regions respond differently to adverse oil market shocks that drive up oil prices, with Europe and North America being more negatively affected than countries in Asia and South America. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Capital inflows: Macroeconomic implications and policy responses

This paper examines the macroeconomic implications of and policy responses to surges in private capital inflows across a large group of emerging and advanced economies. In particular, we identify 109 episodes of large net private capital inflows to 52 countries over 1987–2007. Episodes of large capital inflows are often associated with real exchange rate appreciations and deteriorating current account balances. More importantly, such episodes tend to be accompanied by an acceleration of GDP growth, but afterwards growth has often dropped significantly. A comprehensive assessment of various policy responses to the large inflow episodes leads to three major conclusions. First, keeping public expenditure growth steady during episodes can help limit real currency appreciation and foster better growth outcomes in their aftermath. Second, resisting nominal exchange rate appreciation through sterilized intervention is likely to be ineffective when the influx of capital is persistent. Third, tightening capital controls has not in general been associated with better outcomes.     

The relationship between oil prices,the stock market and the exchange rate: Evidence from Mexico

This paper analyzes the variables of oil price, exchange rate and stock market index to explain how they interact with each other in the Mexican economy. The examined period includes monthly data from January 1992 to June 2017. A Vector Autoregressive Model (VAR) is implemented that includes oil prices, the nominal exchange rate, the Mexican stock market index, and the consumer price index. Results indicate that the exchange rate has a negative and statistically significant effect on the stock market index; this indicates that an appreciation of the exchange rate is related to an increase in the stock market index. It is also found that the consumer price index has a positive effect on the exchange rate and a negative effect on the stock market index. The results also indicate that oil prices are statistically significant against the exchange rate, concluding that an increase in oil prices creates an appreciation of the exchange rate. In addition, the impulse-response functions show that the effects found tend to disappear over time.