外包与工资差距:基于工业行业数据的实证研究

笔者以Feenstra等人的三要素模型为基础,分析了国际外包影响发达国家及发展中国家熟练劳动力与非熟练劳动力之间工资差距的理论机制,运用我国工业行业面板数据,实证检验了外包对我国工业行业总体及分部门工资差距的影响。结果表明:外包和技术进步对我国工业行业熟练劳动力与非熟练劳动力之间工资差距的扩大均存在明显的正效应,但外包对劳动力资源密集型部门和中等技术部门的影响效应相对更强。     

中间产品进口、技术溢出与中国制造业的工资不平等

中间产品进口的技术溢出是国际贸易影响熟练劳动与非熟练劳动之间工资不平等的一个重要机制。本文运用中国制造业的面板数据,实证检验了中国制造业从R&D资本存量丰富的发达国家进口中间产品及其技术溢出对中国工资不平等的影响。结果表明,由于物化型的技术溢出,中间产品进口既通过实现熟练劳动力与国际先进R&D资本互补效应,又通过技能偏向的知识学习效应和劳动生产率效应,提高了中国制造业熟练劳动力的工资和就业份额,扩大了熟练劳动力与非熟练劳动力之间的相对工资差距,加剧了工资不平等。随着熟练劳动力供给的增加,工资不平等呈现出先上升后下降的趋势。     

论税收对要素收入分配的影响

我国自1994年分税制改革以来,一方面税收收入保持高速增长,另一方面国民收入分配格局发生显著变化——劳动要素分配份额迅速下滑,资本要素分配份额逐渐上升。本文的理论分析表明,税收通过替代效应和收入效应影响要素收入分配,前者改变了生产中要素相对投入比例,从而改变了税前要素收益率,后者则是通过直接税影响到税后要素收益率。本文利用系统GMM估计进行的实证分析表明,我国税收对要素收入分配具有明显影响:就直接税而言,企业所得税降低了资本分配份额,个人所得税中对劳动征税部分降低了劳动分配份额;就间接税而言,增值税明显降低劳动分配份额但对资本分配份额的影响不明显,营业税明显降低资本分配份额而对劳动分配份额的影响不明显。因此,如果从有利于调整要素收入分配格局角度考虑,我国有必要进一步调整现行税收政策、完善税收制度。     

外包、劳动力需求与企业内工资差距——基于企业微观数据的实证研究

本文基于2001~2006年中国工业企业数据库与海关数据库,从异质性企业角度分析了承接外包对我国熟练劳动力与非熟练劳动力需求及企业内工资差距的影响,结论表明:企业承接外包对熟练劳动力需求和企业内工资差距的影响可以分解为生产率效应与替代效应,且替代效应占主导作用,即承接外包最终会使企业减少对熟练劳动力的需求并降低企业内不同类型劳动力之间的工资差距。     

产品内国际分工对中国工资差距的影响

本文从理论和实证两个角度探讨了参与产品内国际分工对中国工业行业熟练劳动力与非熟练劳动力相对工资的影响。发展中国家将熟练劳动力密集型环节外包出去,会对相对工资产生静态负向影响,并且这一效应在技术密集度越高的行业越明显;但随着参与产品内国际分工相关的生产技术提升,对熟练劳动力的需求上升,分工缩小工资差距的效应会逐渐减弱。本文利用1995²009年中国工业细分行业的样本,采用系统GMM方法进行检验,实证结果基本支持理论分析的结论,但分工缩小工资差距效应的减弱趋势比较缓慢。     

数据要素对劳动和资本的配置效应：机理分析与实证检验

本文通过构建包含互联网平台主体的新凯恩斯DSGE模型,探究了数据要素变革劳动和资本要素配置的机理,并利用动态面板模型实证检验了数据要素成本、数字化技术创新与数据要素质量影响就业、投资和资本装备率的真实效应。研究表明：数据要素成本降低使得完全竞争条件下的产品价格走低,价格效应短期挤出劳动,长期挤入资本,提升资本装备率;数字化技术创新提高了全要素生产率,要素重组升级引致效率变革,通过替代效应促进就业、降低投资,降低资本装备率;数据质量改进通过协同效应稳定和扩大就业,阻止资本无边界的扩张,降低资本装备率。本文厘清了数据要素对劳动和资本单个要素及其比例关系的配置效应和作用机理,为制定数字经济背景下的就业与投资政策提供了决策参考。     

中国工会对企业全要素生产率的作用机制：理论与实证

本文基于企业异质性视角构建工会对全要素生产率的影响机制模型，利用中国工业企业和地级市匹配数据进行实证检验。研究发现，工会密度显著提高了企业全要素生产率，且二者呈倒“U”型关系。机制检验表明，工会通过改善职工工资、福利和社会保障水平显著提升企业全要素生产率，形成收入激励效应；工会通过倒逼企业采取资本深化、人力资本和技术创新的替代劳动策略提升企业全要素生产率，形成要素替代效应。此外，工会对企业全要素生产率的提升效应在东部地区显著高于非东部地区，在国有企业显著高于非国有企业，在出口企业显著高于非出口企业。随着行业垄断势力增强，工会对企业全要素生产率的提升效应越高。因此，建设现代化工会制度、重塑工会角色、强化工会的要素配置作用、推进工会差异化建设，对提升职工收入和企业全要素生产率、推动中国经济高质量发展具有现实意义。     

要素结构变迁对要素生产率的影响——技术进步偏态的视角

技术进步向来是内生经济增长理论关注的焦点,但文献普遍忽视技术进步方向和要素结构对经济效率的影响,其中产业技术进步方向更是本领域的研究空白。文章通过CES生产函数,采用三方程标准化系统法测算我国产业技术进步偏向性,并考察技术进步偏态下要素结构变迁及其对要素生产率的作用。结果发现:(1)我国各产业技术进步都呈偏向特征,要素禀赋不同引致技术进步方向呈阶段性变化趋势和产业差异,金融业与其他产业资本和劳动偏向交替变化特征不同,技术进步总体呈现劳动偏向性。(2)产业要素结构变化趋势及其动力来源差异明显,其中产业资本投资结构变动更多源于投资效益的变化,劳动力结构变动则主要来自投入效益和产业结构的共同作用。(3)将技术进步偏向性和要素结构对要素边际生产率的交互作用分解后发现,各产业资本与劳动相对边际生产率都在下降,这主要归因于要素结构效应的下降,且除金融业外,其他产业技术进步偏向性都具有提升资本与劳动相对边际生产率的作用。     

要素错配与中国工业增长

采用一个测度要素错配对总生产率效应的核算框架,使用中国工业1994～2011年两位数行业的数据,在行业层面上研究了要素错配对产出、生产率的影响。结果显示,行业间的生产率增长和要素配置扭曲程度均存在很大差异,2009～2011年要素错配引起的产出缺口约为29％,通过优化要素配置提升中国工业增长效率的潜力很大。分行业来看,资源垄断性行业存在严重的资本和劳动错配;劳动配置效应比较大的行业主要是劳动力不足的技术密集型行业和劳动力过剩的劳动密集型行业。分要素来看,资本错配程度更高,资本投入和资本配置效应对产出增长的作用更大。     

承接服务外包对中国全要素生产率的异质性影响——基于在岸与离岸的对比分析

为探究承接离岸和在岸服务外包对全要素生产率的差异化影响效果,本文利用2011-2018年中国服务外包示范城市的面板数据,分别采用DEA-Malmquist和索洛余值法测算了全要素生产率,并引入面板校正标准误(PCSE)进行最小二乘法(LS)回归.研究结果表明,承接在岸服务外包和离岸服务外包都对全要素生产率水平的提升产生了积极影响,并且承接离岸服务外包对全要素生产率的影响程度显著高于承接在岸服务外包.进一步检验发现,东部城市承接离岸服务外包对全要素生产率的提升产生了显著的促进作用,而中西部城市承接离岸服务外包对全要素生产率的提升产生了消极影响;此外中西部城市承接在岸服.务外包对全要素生产率的提升效应高于东部城市.     

Factor price overshooting with trade liberalization: theory and evidence

This paper develops an intra‐industry trade model with skilled and unskilled labor as factors of production, endogenous accumulation of skilled labor and firm heterogeneity in factor intensities to examine the effect of trade reforms on factor prices. Since exporters are more skill intensive than non–exporters, a decrease in trade barriers initially increases wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers, as a result of an increase in the relative demand for skilled labor. Over time, however, as agents respond to the change in relative wages by investing in skilled labor, the relative wage of skilled labor decreases. Evidence from Chilean plant–level data supports the idea of factor price overshooting with trade liberalization.     

Can International Factor Mobility Reduce Wage Inequality in a Dual Economy?*

This paper analyzes the consequences of international factor movements on the skilled–unskilled wage inequality in a dual‐economy set‐up that includes unemployment and three intersectorally mobile factors of production—unskilled labor, skilled labor, and capital. Thus far, theoretical literature on this subject has adopted the full‐employment framework and hence ignored the problem of unemployment. The analysis in this paper reveals that the results crucially depend on the difference in the intersectoral factor intensities between skilled labor and capital. In particular, it demonstrates the existence of a possibility of deterioration in wage inequality following foreign unskilled‐labor inflow.     

Unemployment,Wage Inequality and International Factor Movement in the Presence of Agricultural Dualism

This paper investigates how the international factor movements affect the unemployment and skilled–unskilled wage inequality with the existence of a modern agricultural sector. Our research has the new feature that we not only consider that the rural labor migrates to the urban sector but also to the modern agricultural sector. The main conclusions are that the unskilled labor outflow certainly decreases the wage inequality and unemployment rate and the influences that skilled labor movement and capital inflow have on wage inequality and unemployment rate are dependent on the factor intensity between the urban and modern agricultural sectors.     

Anti‐immigration policy in the destination country and skilled–unskilled wage inequality in a source economy with or without unemployment

This paper is aimed at theoretically examining the consequence of the anti‐immigration policy adopted in the destination country on the skilled–unskilled wage inequality in a source nation using a couple of two‐sector, specific‐factor general equilibrium models in both the presence and absence of unemployment. Emigration requires incurring some capital cost for professional skill formation on the part of every prospective emigrant that adds to the opportunity cost of emigration. The authority of the destination country determines the number of visas to be granted and hence directly controls the magnitude of skilled emigration from the source country. In the migration equilibrium, the expected skilled wage income abroad is equal to the opportunity cost of emigration. In both the presence and absence of unemployment of unskilled labor, the outcome of the policy on the wage inequality crucially hinges on both the magnitude of the fixed cost of emigration and the technological factors. In the specific‐factor Harris–Todaro model, the degree of imperfection in the unskilled labor market is an additional factor. Finally, some policy recommendations have been made for protecting the interest of the poor unskilled workforce.     

Extensive and Intensive Margins of Exports and Labor Heterogeneity

This paper investigates how changes in skilled and unskilled labor supply affect different margins of exports. Using bilateral trade data in manufacturing sectors of 34 countries from 1995 to 2010, we find that most of the impact of skilled labor on exports goes through the intensive margin, whereas most of the effect of unskilled labor works through the extensive margin. These outcomes result from the impact of labor skill composition on the productivity cut‐off of exporters. We also find that the impact of skilled and unskilled labor on trade margins depends on the income level of countries and on the type of products. The results indicate that the effect of skilled labor is greater for low‐income countries and differentiated products, while that of unskilled labor is greater for high‐income countries and homogeneous products.     

Unemployment and International Factor Movement in the Presence of Skilled and Unskilled Labor

Widespread unemployment has been observed in some developing countries. On the other hand, extensive movement of labor across countries has also been observed. Therefore, in order to examine the interaction between the domestic and international labor markets, this paper develops a model that includes unemployment, international factor movement, and the difference between skilled and unskilled labor. The model examines the effect of production subsidies on unemployment and evaluates their effectiveness as a possible policy in order to alleviate the problem of unemployment. Further, this paper investigates the effects of international factor movement on unemployment and welfare.     

Tax Competition and Economic Integration

This article examines the role of tax competition and economic integration in a core–periphery setting, where agglomeration forces are present. I present a New Economic Geography model, which accounts for firm entry/exit and international mobility of skilled labor employed in the public R&D sectors. In contrast to other literature on tax competition, I focus on its impact on labor migration and net earnings of skilled and unskilled labor. Economic integration is modeled as trade liberalization, an easing of factor mobility restrictions and technology diffusion. I find that tax competition favors skilled labor when trade costs are reduced. In contrast, unskilled labor benefits when factor mobility restrictions are eased and technology diffusion is enhanced.     

Trade with Time Zone Differences: Factor Market Implications

The main purpose of this study is to illustrate, with a simple two‐factor (skilled and unskilled labor) model, how a time‐saving improvement in business‐services trade benefitting from differences in time zones can have an impact on national factor markets. In doing so, we intend to capture the situation where the night‐shift work in one country is replaced by the day‐shift work in another country. In other words, we will show that trade with time zone differences will result in shifts of the relative supplies and demands for skilled labor around the globe.     

Factor‐biased public infrastructure and wage inequality

This paper analyzes how factor‐biased public infrastructure affects the skilled–unskilled wage inequality. In the basic model with a full employment economy, we find that when the weighted dependence of skilled labor and capital in the urban skilled sector on public infrastructure is large enough relatively to that of unskilled labor and capital in the urban unskilled sector, the wage inequality will be expanded. We also discuss labor‐biased and capital‐biased public infrastructure in our framework, and find that the relative dependences of relevant labor or capital on public infrastructure are important determinants of wage inequality. In the extended models, we analyze separately the issue of wage inequality in the economy with unemployment and the totally open capital market, and find the results of the basic model almost still hold.     

Labor Inflow Induced Wage Inequality and Public Infrastructure

By making use of a simple general equilibrium model of a small open economy, the author examines the link between labor mobility and the size of wage inequality in the presence of productive public infrastructure. The paper shows that the provision of public infrastructure plays an important part in determining the size of labor inflow induced wage inequality. Specifically, it shows that, irrespective of the relative factor intensities, a small inflow of either skilled or unskilled labor does not affect the size of wage inequality if private industries derive equal benefits from public infrastructure provision. A small inflow of skilled (unskilled) labor increases (decreases) wage inequality if skilled (unskilled) labor intensive industry derives more benefits from public infrastructure.