增加公共教育支出能够缓解“二代”现象吗?——基于CHNS的代际收入流动性分析

文章基于我国社会"二代"现象的现实背景,从公共教育支出的视角,依据代际收入流动理论,采用我国各地区教育经费支出和生均教育经费数据以及"中国健康与营养调查(CHNS)"数据,运用多重门槛模型对我国公共教育支出影响居民代际收入流动的作用机制与程度进行了理论与实证分析。研究发现:(1)当前我国代际收入流动性较低,各地区公共教育支出水平会影响代际收入流动性的大小,加入公共教育支出变量后,代际收入弹性为0.548,公共教育支出对子代收入的弹性为0.154;(2)随着政府教育支出水平的提高,公共教育支出水平越高的地区代际收入流动性的增加越显著;(3)各地区公共教育支出对代际收入流动性的影响程度并不随地区经济发展水平差异而不同。因此,无论经济发达地区还是落后地区,政府对公共教育的投入都应该持续进行,只有累积到一定程度后才能显著改善代际收入流动性,缓解"二代"现象。     

代际收入传递性研究评述

代际收入传递性是影响个人工资或收入不均等的一个重要因素。即使是发达的市场经济国家,父母收入对子女收入仍然具有显著的正效应,代际收入弹性达到了0.4左右,换言之,社会收入的流动性仍然很低。父母收入影响成年孩子收入主要通过人力资本投资、家庭文化资本和父母个性特征三个渠道进行传导。代际收入传递性研究进一步丰富和完善了已有的人力资本理论,拓宽了传统的公共教育政策。     

人口老龄化、公共人力资本投资与 经济增长*

本文利用内生化老龄化的世代交叠模型,探讨了老龄化社会中为了促进经济增长可选择的公共人力资本投资的最优相对规模和结构。本文研究表明,公共人力资本投资相对规模（即占GDP比例）和公共健康支出占比（即占公共人力资本投资比例）均与经济增长呈倒U型关系,且最优值通过老龄化对经济增长的作用表现出来。即当老龄化对经济增长有促进（抑制）作用时,政府促进经济增长的政策是提高（降低）人力资本投资相对规模和公共健康支出占比。基于中国省级面板数据的实证研究发现,老龄化不利于经济增长,公共人力资本投资相对规模及公共健康支出占比偏大,均处在倒U型曲线的下降阶段,分别通过挤出对经济增长更具促进作用的私人投资、公共物质资本投资和公共教育支出而不利于经济增长。本文的政策含义是,政府需提高公共教育支出占比,引导和鼓励更有效率的社会私人资本进行人力资本投资,以逐步降低公共人力资本投资的相对规模。当前公共物质资本投资则需继续加强。     

引出还是挤出:政府与家庭的高等教育支出行为互动模式

在我国高等教育大众化发展过程中,高等教育经费保障一直存在着来源结构不合理、政府支出力度不足的问题。基于人力资本投资一般均衡模型,本文解析了政府与家庭投资教育的不同激励。父母一代越是重视子女福利,政府教育投入越能提升父母投资子女教育的激励。而政府在预算收入约束条件下,教育财政投入是家庭投入和社会人力资本积累的反应函数。进一步构建省级面板数据联立方程模型,本文实证检验了政府与家庭之间的高等教育支出行为模式,结果发现政府高等教育支出有利于引出更多的家庭支出,而家庭高等教育支出挤出了政府支出努力。在高等教育由大众化迈向普及化的过程中,需要建立制度落实政府责任,以此带动家庭更多地为子女高等教育而投资。     

借贷约束、金融素养与中国家庭股票市场“有限参与”之谜

本文基于2013年中国家庭金融调查(CHFS)数据,选用工具变量法,考察了借贷约束与金融素养对家庭股票市场参与的影响,并验证了金融素养水平的提高会缓解借贷约束对家庭股市参与的抑制作用。研究发现:(1)借贷约束是影响家庭股票市场参与的重要因素。与无借贷约束家庭相比,借贷约束降低了家庭股市参与的意愿,尤其是通过借贷方式参与股市的意愿,同时也降低了股市的投资金额和投资时长;(2)金融素养是影响家庭股市参与的重要因素。户主金融素养水平的改善显著提高了家庭股市参与的意愿、投资规模和投资时长,并增加了家庭股票市场获利的可能性;(3)随着户主金融素养水平的提高,家庭借贷约束对家庭股市参与意愿和参与规模的抑制作用得到了有效地缓解。基于以上结论,政府应加快收入分配制度与消费金融市场改革,提高家庭金融素养水平,引导家庭合理配置股票资产,从而促进家庭财富的不断增长。     

收入风险、融资约束与人力资本积累——公共教育投资的作用

尽管改革开放以来,我国经济保持了30多年的高速增长,但与此不相匹配的是,政府对公共教育的投资远远低于世界平均水平。从人类发展的角度来看,人力资本不但是经济增长的重要投入要素,人力资本的提升本身也是经济发展的核心目的。本文通过构建教育投资的世代交叠模型,说明存在收入风险和融资约束时,居民选择的教育水平将会低于社会最优水平;政府的公共教育投资具有融资效应和保险效应。基于OECD跨国数据的实证检验表明,政府公共教育投资能够促进人力资本水平的提高,这种促进作用在收入风险较大、融资约束较强的国家效果会更为突出。结合理论推导和实证检验,本文认为,在我国市场经济尚不完善,人力资本与劳动报酬匹配程度有待提升,劳动者面临显著收入风险,收入不平等状况严重的情况下,我国应进一步扩大公共教育投资,提升公共教育投资效率,以提高我国的人力资本水平。     

促进代际收入流动:我们需要怎样的公共教育——基于CHNS和CFPS数据的实证分析

本文采用中国健康与营养调查和中国家庭追踪调查数据分析不同等级教育对中国代际收入流动性的影响,研究发现:在采用不同数据和衡量指标的回归分析中,幼托和初中都呈现出一致的促进代际收入流动的作用;大学则呈现出一致的阻碍代际收入流动的作用;而小学和高中的作用方向波动较大,尚无一致结论。这意味着,增加对幼托和初中阶段教育的公共投入可能更有利于提高代际收入流动性,而增加高等教育投入的作用可能有限。     

代际收入流动性度量及其影响因素的分析:一个综述

代际收入流动性研究是经济学研究的前沿领域之一。代际收入流动性强意味着子代相对于父代更具有独立性。促进代际流动有助于实现机会和收入的平等并提高社会效率。在流动性的度量中,主要使用回归系数法和转换矩阵法。代际收入流动受到多因素的影响,包括人力资本投资、社会关系网络、选型婚配、生理遗传等。西方代际收入流动性的考察往往忽略了这些因素背后的制度因素。     

人口老龄化对人力资本投资的影响及贡献研究

人力资本是中国现阶段经济增长的重要推动力,人力资本形成分别源于私人人力资本投资和社会公共财政支出,在人口老龄化程度不断加深的背景下,人口老龄化与人力资本投资之间的关系值得深入研究.本文首先采用中国各省份宏观数据,分析老年抚养比与公共人力资本投资之间的关系,结果表明两者之间呈现倒U型关系,且拐点的老龄化水平为13.10％.其次,采用中国家庭追踪调查(CFPS)数据分析老龄化和公共人力资本投资对私人人力资本投资的影响,发现地区人口老龄化水平不会对私人人力资本投资产生显著影响,而家庭人口结构老龄化会对私人人力资本投资产生显著的抑制作用,同时公共人力资本投资会对私人人力资本投资产生替代作用.最后,分析人口老龄化对人力资本投资的贡献.偏离份额分解的结果表明,2010-2018年人力资本投资变动的31.28％可以由以老龄化为特征的人口年龄结构的变化解释;结构转型定量模型的分析结果显示,与收入和相对价格变动相比,老龄化对人力资本投资变动的贡献最大,为88.17％.     

教育融资体制对代际流动性与不平等程度的动态影响：基于OL G模型的分析

传统的代际流动性研究并没有对代际流动性的短期值和长期值作有效区分,也未考虑人力资本形成中的不确定性,因而“代际流动性越高则不平等程度越低”这一分析结论并未在中国的现实中呈现。文章据此通过构建一个代际交叠模型比较分析了公共教育体制和市场教育体制下的代际流动性。模型动态分析发现：(1)公共教育体制下的不平等程度的长期值比市场教育体制下更低。(2)代际流动性短期值的升高并不总是伴随着不平等程度的下降,当社会受到某种剧烈冲击时可能发生两者同升同降的情况。(3)政府进行激进式的教育体制改革会使人力资本收敛速率发生跃升,并且使不平等程度的短期值和长期值都增大,而代际流动性则会在突降后在逐渐收敛到新的更低的稳态值。(4)人力资本积累不确定性参数值反映了个体不可观测的技能或先天禀赋,是影响代际流动性和不平等程度的重要因素。不确定性的突然上升会使不平等程度的短期值迅速上升,并且会使不平等程度的长期值达到新的高位,虽然代际流动性短期值也会迅速上升,但依旧会逐渐收敛到以前的稳态值不变。文章的研究有益于厘清代际流动性与不平等程度的复杂关系,也能为相关实证研究提供参考。     

Parental nurturing and adverse effects of redistribution

This paper suggests that if parental nurturing is a dominating force in human capital formation then income redistribution may not promote economic growth. In particular, if, consistently with empirical evidence, parental human capital complements investment in a child’s education and yields increasing returns in the intergenerational production of human capital, income redistribution may have an adverse impact on the growth rate of average human capital. Redistribution shifts resources towards the less educationally-productive families and thus in the presence of credit markets imperfections and increasing returns, it reduces the aggregate level of investment in human capital. Moreover, if the degree of increasing returns is sufficiently large to produce sustained growth, this adverse effect on human capital formation may outweigh the conventional beneficial effects of redistribution that arises from the interaction between a production technology exhibiting diminishing returns and credit market imperfections.     

Patterns and determinants of intergenerational educational mobility: Evidence across countries

This study analyses the patterns and determinants of the intergenerational persistence of education attainment. Internationally comparable data are used by age cohort for parentsʼ and childrenʼs education levels for 30 countries. The intergenerational regression coefficients are estimated by explicitly considering the bias from the censored regressor, and they show that educational mobility has worsened over generations in most countries. However, the degree of change varies considerably across countries and over time. Country-cohort panel regressions are performed using the estimates of intergenerational educational mobility and covariates. The results show that intergenerational educational mobility tends to decrease with income inequality, inflation and credit constraints. However, it increases with per capita GDP and public expenditure on primary education relative to that on tertiary education.     

Credit constraints,growth and inequality dynamics

This paper examines how credit constraints affect the dynamics of wealth and thereby the dynamics of capital and output growth. We develop standard Ak growth models that display transitional dynamics, contrary to general belief, once the complete credit markets assumption is relaxed. The mechanism is that credit constraints make individual productivity differences persist, which in turn leads to the persistence of income inequality. The dynamics of inequality is jointly determined with the dynamics of aggregate capital. The economy thus passes through a transitional period of inequality, individual and aggregate capital dynamics before it converges to a long-run balanced growth path. The application of the model to the analysis of intergenerational mobility and inequality dynamics suggests substantial economic and policy significance. In particular, introducing credit constraints to the Barro Ak model, public investment could have an indirect impact on growth via its effect on inequality and mobility.     

The Intergenerational State Education and Pensions

When credit markets to finance investment in human capital are missing, the competitive equilibrium allocation is inefficient. When generations overlap, this failure can be mitigated by properly designed social arrangements. We show that public financing of education and public pensions can be designed to implement an intergenerational transfer scheme supporting the complete market allocation. Neither the public financing of education nor the pension scheme we consider resemble standard ones. In our mechanism, via the public education system, the young borrow from the middle aged to invest in human capital. They pay back the debt via a social security tax, the proceedings of which finance pension payments. When the complete market allocation is achieved, the rate of return implicit in this borrowing–lending scheme should equal the market rate of return.     

代际间的职业流动与收入流动——来自中国城乡家庭的经验研究

本文通过对中国城乡家庭代际间的职业流动与收入流动进行实证研究,得出以下结论:(1)城镇家庭子女的职业随其职业生涯的发展有向父辈职业"回归"的趋势,而农村家庭中父代从事非农职业有助于子女实现职业的向上流动。(2)子女受教育程度的提高有利于代际间职业的向上流动,但其父辈的社会经济特征也对代际间的职业传承和流动有显著的影响。(3)代际之间职业的传承在一定程度上阻碍了代际间的收入流动,代际职业传承对高收入家庭的代际收入弹性影响更强。     

Human Capital, Heterogeneity and Estimated Degrees of Intergenerational Mobility

We study the parental investment model of intergenerational mobility, where heterogeneity in 'innate' earnings ability and parents' altruism rate is explicitly modelled. We show that heterogeneity increases the difficulty of detecting the existence of borrowing constrained families. Conversely, the presence of heterogeneity means that economic and linear statistical models of inheritance generate similar intergenerational data on consumption and earnings. We also suggest that nay cross-country differences in intergenerational earnings mobility are more readily interpreted according to the heterogeneity of inherited ability, rather than optimal family responses to country-specific institutions for accumulating human capital.     

Capital markets integration, growth and income distribution

The paper considers a two-country model of overlapping generation heterogenous economies with intergenerational transfers carried out in the form of bequest and investment in human capital. We examine in competitive equilibrium the transitory and long-run effects of capital markets integration. First, we explore how the regime of public education affects the dynamics of the integrated economy. Second, we study the effects of capital markets integration, in equilibrium, on the intragenerational income distribution in both the host and investing country.     

Functional components of public expenditure,fiscal consolidations,and economic activity

This paper analyses how the functional components of public expenditure and spending‐driven consolidations affect the economic growth, unemployment, and income inequality. A dynamic panel data least squares dummy variable estimator estimator is employed over a sample of 15 European Union countries during the period 1990–2012. The empirical results show that real GDP growth decreases when fiscal austerity measures are implemented, especially if they are spending‐driven. Cuts in public expenditure undermine economic growth, namely if they slash spending on public order, recreation, and education. Spending cuts on education, in particular, affect the investment in human capital, harming not only growth but also economic, social, and human development. The unemployment rate also proved to be significantly boosted when austerity measures restrict spending on education, whereas income inequality rises when social protection expenditures are cut.     

Credit constraint and human capital investment: an empirical analysis using Brazilian household budget survey

This article is a first step towards understanding the relationship between credit market imperfections and inequality of opportunity in skill formation. The main goal is to investigate the effects of the credit constraint on the optimal human capital decision, in terms of degree of schooling, taking into account the household preferences for education. Our starting point is a theoretical model of human capital investment decision with credit constraint. Following a previous model in the literature, we propose a reduced-form approach that estimates the relation between education decision and initial wealth in Brazil. Our empirical analysis is conducted using data from a Brazilian Household Budget Survey (Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares), for years 2002–2003 and 2008–2009. Our results point out that education decision is in fact credit constrained. The empirical results show a strong and highly significant effect of wealth on educational level of children, teenagers and adults, even controlling by education expenditures. But we find no evidence of credit constraint on high level education decision, like undergraduate and graduate levels.