Why do ICDPs fail?: The relationship between agriculture,hunting and ecotourism in wildlife conservation

We analyze why integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) fail to achieve their conservation goals. We develop a bio-economic model of open access habitat and wildlife exploitation, which is consistent with farming and hunting societies living in close proximity to forest reserves in developing countries. We show that the ICDP creates incentives to conserve habitat and wildlife, but socially optimal levels of conservation cannot be achieved, because of externalities among the local communities. We show how a social planner can achieve the socially optimal levels of habitat and wildlife by a more encompassing tax/subsidy regime.     

Protected areas, wildlife conservation, and local welfare

The establishment and expansion of protected areas in Africa have been motivated by the aspiration of increased wildlife abundance. However, during the past decades, this practice has been subject to a massive debate. While some claim that protected areas have failed in preserving African wildlife, others claim that existing protected areas are successful. This paper adds to this debate by presenting a bio-economic analysis of protected area expansion. The model considers a hunter-agrarian community located on the border of a protected area. An expansion of the protected area means less land for agricultural cultivation and hunting. Depending on the economic conditions of these activities, the model demonstrates that protected area expansion may reduce the degree of wildlife conservation. In addition, it may reduce the welfare of the local people.     

The CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe: Payments for wildlife services

Payments for environmental services (PES) have been distinguished from the more common integrated conservation and development projects on the grounds that PES are direct, more cost-effective, less complex institutionally, and therefore more likely to produce the desired results. Both kinds of schemes aim to achieve similar conservation outcomes, however, and generally function in analogous social, political and economic environments. Given the relative novelty of PES, what lessons can be learnt and applied from earlier initiatives? In this paper, we describe the evolution over the first 12 years (1989-2001) of Zimbabwe's Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), a community-based natural resource management programme in which Rural District Councils, on behalf of communities on communal land, are granted the authority to market access to wildlife in their district to safari operators. These in turn sell hunting and photographic safaris to mostly foreign sport hunters and eco-tourists. The District Councils pay the communities a dividend according to an agreed formula. In practice, there have been some underpayments and frequent delays. During 1989-2001, CAMPFIRE generated over US$20 million of transfers to the participating communities, 89% of which came from sport hunting. The scale of benefits varied greatly across districts, wards and households. Twelve of the 37 districts with authority to market wildlife produced 97% of all CAMPFIRE revenues, reflecting the variability in wildlife resources and local institutional arrangements. The programme has been widely emulated in southern and eastern Africa. We suggest five main lessons for emerging PES schemes: community-level commercial transactions can seldom be pursued in isolation; non-differentiated payments weaken incentives; start-up costs can be high and may need to be underwritten; competitive bidding can allow service providers to hold on to rents; and schemes must be flexible and adaptive.     

Comparing Conventional and New Policy Approaches for Carnivore Conservation: Theoretical Results and Application to Tiger Conservation

New policy approaches to facilitate the co-existence of wildlife and livestock are needed for situations where predation incidents greatly impact households’ income and retaliatory killing threatens endangered carnivore species’ survival. In this paper, models are developed to assess how two alternative policy approaches impact a herder’s decisions on carnivore hunting and livestock protection. We find that while the well-established ex-post compensation policy induces suboptimal livestock protection it can generate sufficient incentives for the herder to refrain from hunting so that the carnivore population reaches its socially optimal level. Performance payments are proposed as alternative policy. They are found not to distort livestock protection incentives and can also help achieve a socially optimal carnivore population level. Which of the two scheme types gives rise to less cost is ambiguous. An empirical analysis of the model with data from tiger-livestock conflicts in India is presented.     

Less Developed Countries,Tourism Investments and Local Economic Development

This paper analyzes the forward linkages of a multinational's investment in a resort that kicks off tourism activity in a less developed country. We show that, under quite natural assumptions, overnight stays are increasing in the number of differentiated tourism‐related goods and services. These goods and services, if supplied by the local community, represent forward linkages of FDI in tourism. We investigate the multinational's incentives to promote, reduce or eliminate these forward linkages and the effectiveness of some policy instruments available to a local government to leverage on the presence of FDI and to stimulate domestic entrepreneurship.     

野生动物旅游:概念、类型与研究框架

野生动物旅游源于欧美地区的野生动物猎杀和观赏活动,已经历了上百年的发展历史。近年来,野生动物旅游发展迅速,受到国外学界和业界的广泛关注。文章分析和总结了野生动物旅游的概念,依据不同的标准划分了野生动物旅游的类型;构建了野生动物旅游研究的内容框架,认为其由野生动物旅游内涵研究、野生动物旅游供给研究、野生动物旅游者研究、野生动物旅游影响研究、野生动物旅游地可持续发展研究等五个既相互独立、又相互关联的子系统构成。     

INDIVIDUAL SPECIES-STATE ANALYSIS OF NATURESERVE'S "AT-RISK" CATEGORIES: HUNTING AND FISHING'S ROLE

We examine the impact of hunting and fishing on rankings in NatureServe's 2005 "at-risk" list using 24,291 observations on individual vertebrate animal species for 47 states (we omit Alaska, Hawaii, and Missouri). We use 1) a probit analysis of the binary "at-risk" designation and 2) an ordered probit analysis of the five categories of endangerment. We control for species type (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and turtles), population density, farming area, forest cover, coastline existence, endemism, and per capita income. We find that states with higher hunting and fishing participation (or higher per capita expenditures) have fewer "at-risk" species. States with larger per capita big game spending have fewer "at-risk" non–big game species. States with larger wildlife agency budgets have fewer endangered species. ( JEL Q57)     

Rent Seeking with Politically Contestable Rights to Tariff‐rate Import Quotas**

This paper analyzes rent seeking for agricultural import quotas and the associated waste of resources when politically contestable licenses are allocated to either or both importers and exporters. In a two‐stage simultaneous contest where firms seek rent for licenses and then bargain over the import/export price, it is shown that (1) rents are not dissipated completely because of uncertainty in allocation of “rights,” (2) the dissipation ratio increases if the country with a more competitive contest increases the probability of establishing licenses, (3) rent seeking may cause the market structure to change, (4) less rent is dissipated in the case of pre‐existing market power, and (5) allocation of multiple licenses decreases rent‐seeking outlays.     

Finders keepers: Forfeiture laws,policing incentives,and local budgets

To encourage anti-drug policing, the federal government and many state governments have enacted laws that allow police agencies to keep a substantial fraction of the assets that they seize in drug arrests. We use rich new data on police seizures and local spending to explore the reactions of both governments and police to the incentives created by these policies. We find that local governments offset police seizures by reducing their other allocations to police, partially undermining the incentives laid out in statute and diverting the earmarked funds to other purposes. Police, in turn, respond to the real net incentives for seizures, once local offsets are taken into account, by increasing the drug arrest rate. Heroin prices also increase, suggesting that the increased emphasis on anti-drug policing raises the supply costs of illicit drugs. These findings highlight both the promise and pitfalls of using financial incentives to solve agency problems in a federal system: both local agents and intervening governments have sophisticated responses to financial incentives, and these responses must be taken into account in both designing effective policies and evaluating their consequences.     

Incentive roles of fringe benefits in compensation contracts

The purpose of this paper is to establish a new insight into the potential benefit of fringe benefits used by firms in compensation contracts. We show that fringe benefits have a role to provide incentives and reduce agency costs. In an agency model with moral hazard, we examine the optimal incentive package that involves salary, equity shares, and fringe benefits. Based on the notion that fringe benefits are imperfect substitutes for salary and (weakly) complementary to effort, we show how the optimal package may include an excessive provision of fringe benefits that exceeds the first-best level, and why it involves a distortion towards overconsumption of fringe benefits in terms of the manager's preferences.     

社区居民参与旅游积极性的影响因素调查研究

本文以云南省中部古州野林彝族村寨、大槟榔园花腰傣村寨两个生态旅游景区为例,在实地调查的基础上,通过定量分析,得出影响社区居民参与旅游积极性的五个因素,即社区经济和旅游业发展水平,景区优势旅游资源,社区居民对旅游开发的认知,对政府的信任度以及民族传统习俗。     

Do Protected Areas Reduce Forest Fragmentation? A Microlandscapes Approach

Conservation policies influence both the amount of habitat loss and patterns of habitat fragmentation. This paper develops a “microlandscapes” approach that combines fragmentation measures with quasi-experimental evaluation methods in order to assess the effects of policy on habitat fragmentation. As an application, the paper estimates whether and to what extent wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in Thailand prevented forest loss and fragmentation. I find that both types of protected areas significantly increased forest cover, average forest patch size and maximum forest patch size. Comparisons between the two types indicate that wildlife sanctuaries were more effective than national parks in terms of protecting forest in the interior versus exterior areas of parks and preventing fragmentation conditional on the level of forest cover. The differences are consistent with predicted differences resulting from spatial patterns of enforcement that are uniform or core-focused in the wildlife sanctuaries versus boundary-focused or include agglomeration penalties in the national parks. Given the greater effectiveness of wildlife sanctuaries in preventing fragmentation and the suggestive link to enforcement types, these results reinforce existing theoretical work urging conservation managers to consider how the spatial distribution of enforcement may affect patterns of resource use.     

现代性拓殖与地方响应:少数民族盐业旅游社区的发展实践

全球化背景下,现代性以不可阻挡之势向边缘民族地区拓殖的同时,地方也不断作出响应,二者的互动塑造和影响着地方社会的深刻变迁。文章以西藏芒康县盐井地区为案例,运用深度访谈、观察等方法收集资料,分析现代性向边缘民族地区拓殖的路径、地方响应及其对地方社会的影响。研究发现:①现代性通过以机械化生产技术为代表的"硬现代性"和以旅游发展为代表的"软现代性"两条路径向边缘少数民族社区拓殖。②民族社区在这一过程中并非只是被动卷入,而是根据其现实需求、价值观念及地方知识的内在合理性等采取接受、调适、创造与抵制等多种应对策略。③现代性与地方的多元互动引发了传统与现代的边界重塑,地方社会中人地关系的疏离、回归与转变,以及社会关系与交往逻辑的打破与重构。文章关注现代性对少数民族旅游社区发展实践的具体影响,是对现代性理论的综合性微观实证探索,有助于加深对现代性与地方的互动关系以及旅游社会影响的再认识。     

国外社区旅游规划的研究进展及其主要理念

文章在简要回顾国外社区旅游规划基本理念的发展历程的基础上,就社区旅游规划涉及到的具有代表性的主要理念进行阐述;在评述其发展过程的基础上,勾勒出国外社区旅游规划理论研究的基本趋势和主要理念,以期对中国社区旅游规划起到借鉴作用。     

国家公园入口社区性质、发展特征与 政策需求

入口社区位于国家公园入口附近,其形成与发展均 早于国家公园,伴随国家公园发展而成长,旅游服务是入口社 区共同特征。保护国家公园生态系统完整性和景观风貌的融合 性,精明控制增长,促进产业多元化,维护本地经济持续发展 等是国际上国家公园入口社区发展的基本原则;理论上国家公 园入口社区是国家公园生态系统服务价值转化的重要依托,是 生态产品产业化生产与服务基地,在国家公园与区域协同发展 中具有重要的纽带作用,这些理论付诸实践必须有国家相关政 策的支持,包括土地政策、资金政策、生态保护与管理政策、 社区就业与住房政策、公共服务均衡化政策等。其中土地政策 最为关键,在国土空间规划三线划定与控制下农业用地、公益 林用地都有最严格的保护要求,入口社区发展空间非常有限, 难以承载入口社区可以承担的功     

Rural community tourism in western Sichuan''''s Qiang nationality:a case study of Wulong Stockade

The importance of the local economy of the development of tourism resources in China's relatively underdeveloped minority areas is already common knowledge in academic and business circles. However, it's necessary to research more on specific patterns of tourism development in these ethnic' minority areas. This paper studies Wulong Stockade in Beichuan County in Sichuan Province and examines the distinctive experience of the local Qiang community about developing local tourism resources and the local funding of the development, It notes how the introduction of new re-afforestation laves of 1999 affected the traditional, agriculture-based economy and how a member of the community was a key motivator in initiating tourism as a new economic resource. It has also explored changes in the economic conditions of Qiang peasants since tourism began in Wulong Stockade, where local incomes have increased considerably. This paper focuses on a characteristic Qiang area in the mountains of western Sichuan, demonstrates the necessity and feasibility of community tourism development, and suggests that other ethnic minority mountain villages in rural areas draw lessons from Wulong Stockade's experience.     

湖南省森林公园旅游发展地区差异研究

森林公园旅游是森林旅游的重要组成部分,研究森林公园旅游区域协调发展对于推进森林旅游可持续发展和林业产业结构调整具有重要意义。以2010—2019年湖南省14个市州森林公园数量、面积、旅游接待人数和旅游收入数据为基础,运用位序—规模分布理论与首位分布理论,对湖南省森林公园旅游规模差异及其分布状况进行了分析。结果表明:(1)湖南各市州森林公园旅游发展的绝对差异在扩大,但相对差异变化不大。(2)湖南省森林公园旅游发展不均衡情况总体上表现为森林公园数量<森林公园面积<旅游接待人数<旅游收入的局面。(3)在排名上,大部分市州都出现了一定波动,但在旅游接待人数和旅游收入方面,张家界一直稳居首位,娄底的旅游收入排名有大幅度上升。文章最后简要探讨了这种差异形成的原因和应对措施。     

Prices vs. quantities: Public finance and the choice of regulatory instruments

Since Montgomery [1972. Markets in licenses and efficient pollution control programs. Journal of Economic Theory 5, 395-418] and Weitzman [1974. Prices vs. quantities. Review of Economic Studies 41, 477-491], it has generally been assumed that, in a full-information setting, tradable quotas and taxes are equivalent regulatory instruments. We demonstrate that, if the government is movitated by public-finance concerns, this equivalence holds only if quotas are short lived. Moreover, the government prefers quotas with the shortest possible lifetime, or, what is equivalent in our setting, taxes.     

混合所有制、股权激励与融资决策中的防御行为--基于动态权衡理论的证据

文章基于动态权衡理论,以1999-2014年上市公司为样本,运用混合所有制改革这一“自然实验”条件,研究了高管股权激励对其融资决策中防御行为的影响,分离出激励和治理双重效应。研究发现：(1)股权激励有助于抑制高管融资决策中的防御行为,但这种效应只存在于民营企业中;(2)对于国有企业,只在股权分置改革后才观察到类似效果,而股改前高管在减少债务融资的同时,提高了股权激励水平,自我激励问题明显;(3)公司股权混合度越高,其在赋予高管股权激励上越谨慎,但在国有股比例较高的公司中,混合所有制改革显著提高了股权激励水平;(4)股权混合安排显著改进了股权激励契约在抑制高管防御行为方面的效率,这种效应在非国有股比例较高的公司中更强。