The costs and benefits of land fragmentation of rice farms in Japan*

Land fragmentation, in which a farm operates multiple, separate plots of land, is a common phenomenon in Japan and many other countries. Usually, land fragmentation is regarded as a harmful phenomenon as it increases production costs and reduces the advantages of scale economies. However, it is also known that fragmentation may have beneficial effects in reducing risk through spatial dispersion of plots. Thus, land fragmentation has both costs and benefits, and whether it is beneficial or harmful is determined by the magnitude of these costs and benefits. This article investigates the costs and benefits of land fragmentation empirically using panel data from Japanese rice farms. The empirical results reveal that fragmentation increases production costs and offsets economies of size, and these impacts strengthen as farm size increases. Moreover, although fragmentation does reduce production risk, its monetary value is far below the cost of land fragmentation. From these findings, we conclude that land fragmentation is an impediment to efficient rice production in Japan.     

The economics of land fragmentation in the north of Vietnam*

Land fragmentation, where a single farm has a number of parcels of land, is a common feature of agriculture in many countries, especially in developing countries. In Vietnam, land fragmentation is common, especially in the north. For the whole country, there are about 75 million parcels of land, an average of seven to eight plots per farm household. Such fragmentation can be seen to have negative and positive benefits for farm households and the community generally. Comparative statics analysis and analysis of survey data have led to the conclusion that small‐sized farms are likely to be more fragmented, and that fragmentation had a negative impact on crop productivity and increased family labour use and other money expenses. Policies which allow the appropriate opportunity cost of labour to be reflected at the farm level may provide appropriate incentives to trigger farm size change and land consolidation. Policies which tip the benefits in favour of fewer and larger plots, such as strong and effective research and development, an active extension system and strong administrative management, may also lead to land consolidation.     

Impact of Genetically Engineered Varieties on the Cost Structure of Corn and Soybean Production in Canada

This paper investigates the impact of genetically engineered (GE) varieties on the cost structure of corn and soybean production in Canada. Employing an adoption index for each farm and a time trend with farm‐level data on production costs of grain corn and soybeans from 2000 to 2007, a translog cost function and the associated input‐share equations are estimated. The use of the adoption index improves the estimates of technological change and multifactor productivity (MFP) growth. The results demonstrate that the adoption of GE corn and soybean reduced the variable costs of production by 0.62% per year. The MFP of corn and soybean grew by 2.0% per year during the study period, and 31% of this growth is attributable to GE varieties of these crops. The results also reveal that the adoption of GE varieties reduced the cost shares of fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides, and machinery in corn and soybean production. While the adoption of GE varieties increased the cost shares of seeds and custom works including labor, only the former was statistically significant.     

新型农业经营主体农机作业服务的双重角色及其动态转变:一个初步的分析框架

近年来新型农业经营主体在发展壮大过程中围绕典型的农机作业服务,表现出从服务需求者向服务供给者转变的动态特征,但现有研究未将此双重角色置于统一的分析框架中,呈现着割裂的研究状态,缺乏对角色转变的逻辑阐释。鉴于此,本文在角色转变的动态视角之下,以农地经营规模变化表征新型农业经营主体的成长过程,通过分析新型农业经营主体在不同农地规模阶段购买和供给农机作业服务所面临的交易成本的变化及其影响,构建探寻双重角色的形成机制和转变逻辑的分析框架。     

乡村内生型农机服务市场形成机理及其运行机制研究

大国小农是我国的基本农情.未来相当一段时间,小规模兼业农户仍将是我国农业经营的主要微观主体.内生型农机服务市场能够有效连接小农户与农机服务提供者,有助于解决因土地细碎化而产生的高交易成本问题,为此,本文重点揭示了内生型农机服务市场的形成机理,设计了其运行机制.研究发现,小农户分散且多元的农机服务需求是内生型农机服务市场...     

土地细碎化与农用地流转市场

土地细碎化导致效率损失，改善土地产权制度安排、完善土地流转市场可以减少乃至消除土地细碎化，这已经被许多入视为常识。但是，长达千年的土地细碎化历史对此常识提出了挑战。本文从中国人多地少的事实出发，提出现阶段农用地仍然具有不可替代性、就业保障功能、难以分割等性质，导致土地交易成本远远超过地块的规模经济，因而，在农民内部难以通过市场调整合并地块。只有农户大幅度减少并实现永久性向城市移民，才能逐步改变土地的上述性质，使农业用地的市场化调整具备必要条件。     

The firm size,farm size,and transaction costs: the case of hazelnut farms in Turkey

This study analyzes the effects of transaction costs on the size of hazelnut farms in Turkey. The study finds that higher land slope and higher variance of rain, as transaction‐cost‐increasing natural effects, lead to smaller hazelnut land holdings. High slope and weather variation can increase the costs of monitoring the laborers, make moving inputs or output up and down harder, limit the use of machinery, and reduce contractual performance of labor contracts. For farm production functions, land is a complex input with measurable interactions with nature. Contrary to common production theory approaches that take natural properties of land as given, the study develops a production function that incorporates natural properties, such as, slope and rain variance. The study utilizes two separate data sets for the estimations. The first data set explores the characteristics of hazelnut farmers, while the second one analyzes the regional characteristics of hazelnut farms.     

Evolution of the Amazonian frontier: Land values in Rondônia, Brazil

Patterns in property values provide strong signals about the future and sustainability of land use. This paper analyzes the determinants of land value in an Amazonian frontier settlement. We estimate hedonic price functions to identify factors that affect the value of farm properties in the western Brazilian Amazon. Distance to market explains nearly one-third of the variation in farm value, as predicted by the von Thünen model. After controlling for location relative to the central market and for municipality, we find that investment in the farms (as reflected in the stocking rate of pastures and the establishment of home gardens) has the next largest impact on land value. The value per hectare of land is negatively related to total lot size, suggesting that any economies of scale are outweighed by the cost of accessing remote corners of large properties. We do not find that land values are related to available measures of biophysical factors or to historic or current land use. Our results do not identify any premium for forest cover or for land uses considered to be more sustainable than pasture on the property itself. However, farm values are affected by neighboring land cover, specifically, the extent of barren land. Thus, local knowledge of factors contributing to future productivity, as summarized in land values, confirms that soil exhaustion can lead to a general decline in property values, while investments in a property both as a homestead and as a farm can help sustain frontier settlements.     

Institutional innovation and policy support to facilitate small‐scale farming transformation in China

While the Asian food economy has been experiencing significant transitions, it is widely believed that little transformation has occurred in farm land operation. However, the recent rapid emergence of middle and large‐size farms in many regions of China is striking, as is the increase in size of operational units. The overall goal of this article is to understand small‐scale farm transformation in China based on a unique dataset surveyed in Northeast and North China. The results show that the institutional innovation through establishing land transfer service centers to promote land rental markets and reduce transaction costs, policy support to speed up land consolidation, and farm mechanization services are major driving forces in the recent evolution of China's farm operations. The article concludes with policy implications on small‐scale farming transformation in China and the rest of world and identifies research issues for further study.     

基于田块空间和权属信息的耕地细碎化MAVF评价研究

研究目的:结合土地整治内容提出田块尺度多属性耕地细碎化评价体系,完善耕地细碎化评价理论与方法。研究方法:以江西省乐平市双田镇高标准农田建设区上河村片为研究对象,选择影响农业生产效率和规模经营潜力的田块细碎化待整治特征为指标,采用AHP和MAVF法制定评价体系,测算研究区的细碎化程度。研究结果:(1)将田块空间信息叠加非空间权属信息后,基于多属性价值函数和权重测算得出251户农户细碎化指数最低为0.170,最高为0.870,中位数为0.469,平均数为0.493,细碎化指数呈现右偏态;(2)研究区耕地细碎化综合指数为0.493,细碎化程度处于中差水平.研究结论:基于田块空间和权属信息,采用MAVF法构建的田块尺度耕地细碎化评价指标体系,较传统耕地权属破碎评价指数更科学全面地反映了耕地细碎程度,本研究为完善耕地细碎化评价理论和实践应用提供一定帮助。     

Cost-effective nitrogen leaching reduction as influenced by linkages between farm-level decisions

This article focuses on how the linkages between various farm‐level decisions affect the choice of measures to reduce nitrogen leaching from crop production. A mathematical programming model is developed. The model considers not only management decisions that affect nitrogen leaching directly, but also other decision variables such as scheduling of field operations and machinery investments. A simplified analysis that ignores the latter management decisions, and the linkages between the various decisions, may result in abatement policies that are not cost‐effective because the policies will have other effects than expected. As an example, the empirical results show that subsidies to catch crops and spring ploughing may contribute to increased nitrogen load, quite contrary to the purpose of these subsidies. Further, it is noted that the characteristics of the production system make it costly to change land use, tillage practices, or fertilizer use drastically. Instead, cost‐effective nitrogen abatement includes a mix of various adjustments of farm‐level production practices. The EU set‐aside payment appears to reduce abatement costs.     

土地经营规模对测土配方施肥技术应用的影响研究——基于家庭农场监测数据的观察

研究目的:在土地规模化和农业绿色发展的背景下,从全国和地区层面分析家庭农场土地经营规模对测土配方施肥技术应用的总体影响,发现其应用概率显著提高了具体土地规模区间。研究方法:运用IV方法对LPM和Probit模型进行估计。研究结果:(1)土地经营规模对农场应用测土配方施肥技术具有显著正向影响。土地经营规模每增加100亩,测土配方施肥技术应用概率平均提高2.10%。(2)政府倡导的适度规模经营与测土配方施肥技术的推广应用并不存在矛盾。相对于土地经营规模75亩以下的农场,当土地经营规模达到110亩后,农场应用测土配方施肥技术的概率会显著提高;110～225亩与225亩以上的农场应用测土配方施肥技术的概率无显著性差异。(3)相比于东北地区的样本农场,土地经营规模对测土配方施肥技术应用的正向影响效应在西部地区的样本农场中更明显。研究结论:促进土地向家庭农场等适度规模经营主体流转,注重不同地区测土配方施肥技术推广的差异性。     

Analysis of the spatial relationship between small olive farms to increase their competitiveness through cooperation

Small olive farms typically find it hard to compete with their larger competitors due to unfavourable conditions in terms of labour costs, land fragmentation and structural capital. These conditions result in higher production costs that reduce their competitiveness, leading to progressive exclusion from domestic and international markets and the abandonment of farming. In this scenario, cooperation between farmers to increase farm size and reduce land fragmentation may be an innovative strategy to improve the competitiveness of small agricultural holdings and avoid farm abandonment. The aim of this paper is to characterize the spatial structure of the traditional olive grove in the province of Jaén (South of Spain), the world’s leading olive oil producer, to identify the areas where farmer cooperation can be effectively implemented. The results of this study confirm that there are large numbers of small, barely viable olive groves and show different ways to promote cooperation between farmers according to the structural characteristics of their farms and their spatial relationships. In particular, when small olive farms have large neighbours, assisted cooperation systems should be implemented, while when small olive farms are concentrated in areas without larger farms, shared cultivation systems would be more efficient. This paper also provides information for the design of public policies aimed at enhancing the competitiveness of small agricultural holdings.     

Smallholder production structure and rural roads in Africa: the case of Nakuru District, Kenya

Data from a 1998 survey of farming households in Kenya is used to estimate the effects of poor rural road infrastructure (and high market access costs) on the structure of smallholder farm production. Simultaneous estimation of cost and input share equations reveals rational responses by farmers to high access costs. In the expected continued absence of major investments in rural infrastructure in countries such as Kenya, the policy challenge is to identify and catalyse institutional innovations that reduce a range of transaction costs, increase financial liquidity, increase social capital, and reduce risk.     

Agrobiodiversity,farm profits and land fragmentation: Evidence from Bulgaria

This paper presents an empirical analysis of the role of land fragmentation, crop biodiversity and their interplay with farm profitability. Original primary data are drawn from a survey conducted in the Plodiv region of Bulgaria. The econometric results stress the ambiguous role of land fragmentation on farm profitability. On one hand, land fragmentation reduces farm profitability. On the other hand, land fragmentation fosters crop diversification. We also find that crop biodiversity plays a beneficial role in farm profitability. Policies that aim to increase land consolidation and reduce fragmentation may overlook the positive link between diversity and plot heterogeneity. Policies that encourage land consolidation should, therefore, consider the crucial role that this has on other variables such as farm biodiversity.     

基本农田补贴标准探讨——以佛山市为例

通过对佛山市基本农田保护区的调查,结合外出打工最低工资标准、农田收益、土地租金等因素,探讨基本农田补贴标准。研究得出:基于外出打工最低工资标准与农田收益差异而确定的基本农田补贴标准为2593元/亩·年;基于土地租金收益差额而确定的基本农田补贴标准为1250元/亩·年;基于农保区问卷调查结果而确定的基本农田补贴标准为1400元/亩·年。该补贴标准为广东省,乃至全国其他地区基本农田或耕地补贴提供参考。     

Impacts of land fragmentation on the cost of producing wheat in the rain-fed region of northern Jordan

In some cultures inheritance customs results in land fragmentation such that over time operating farms become composed of a collection of spatially dispersed fields rather than a contiguous land unit. This study was conducted to determine the impact of land fragmentation as measured by average field size on the average cost of producing wheat in the rain-fed region of Northern Jordan. Primary data were collected from farmers in the region. Generalized Least Squares was used to estimate the average variable cost of producing wheat. It was determined that the average variable cost of producing wheat is a decreasing function of field size. Land fragmentation increases production costs. Continued land fragmentation will lead to decreasing efficiency and is problematic when it results in small fields.     

Self‐protection from weather risk using improved maize varieties or off‐farm income and the propensity for insurance

We investigate how self‐protection from the adoption of Improved Maize Varieties (IMV) and off‐farm income affects risk premiums for smallholder maize producers in Uganda. To unbundle these effects, we specify the cost of risk to explicitly capture four risk components—mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis. Using unique plot‐level panel data for Uganda, we estimate and test moments of a flexible production function based on an expanded form of the Johnson S_U family distribution and proceed to simulate the degree of responsiveness of risk premiums and welfare estimates to marginal changes in the share of land under IMV and off‐farm income. Scenarios of joint adoption of IMV accompanied with low and high application of inorganic fertilizer, and the effect of off‐farm income when there is high and low supply of farm labor are examined. Results show that the use of IMV and off‐farm income substantially reduces risk premiums and the individual effect is much higher under low fertilizer application and high supply of farm labor, respectively. Thus implying that self‐protection is likely to reduce the propensity for index insurance especially if its design fails to consider the reduction in downside risk.     

Lease Pricing for Farm Real Estate

A lease pricing model for farm land is developed that is consistent with traditional leasing principles and allows greater flexibility in determining crop share levels either separately or in combination with a fixed cash payment. The share levels are linked to the farm's soil productivity, the costs of each party's resource contributions, and their respective cost structures. The resulting menu of lease prices can enhance the equitability of leasing contracts, expand the range of contract choices, promote mutual incentives for the leasing parties, and heighten the efficiency of leasing markets through greater standardization of leases.     

Are medium‐scale farms driving agricultural transformation in sub‐Saharan Africa?

This study presents evidence of profound farm‐level transformation in parts of sub‐Saharan Africa, identifies major sources of dynamism in the sector, and proposes an updated typology of farms that reflects the evolving nature of African agriculture. Repeat waves of national survey data are used to examine changes in crop production and marketed output by farm size. Between the first and most recent surveys (generally covering 6 to 10 years), the share of national marketed crop output value accounted for by medium‐scale farms rose in Zambia from 23% to 42%, in Tanzania from 17% to 36%, and in Nigeria from 7% to 18%. The share of land under medium‐scale farms is not rising in densely populated countries such as Kenya, Uganda, and Rwanda, where land scarcity is impeding the pace of medium‐scale farm acquisitions. Medium‐scale farmers are a diverse group, reflecting distinct entry pathways into agriculture, encouraged by the rapid development of land rental, purchase, and long‐term lease markets. The rise of medium‐scale farms is affecting the region in diverse ways that are difficult to generalize. Findings indicate that these farms can be a dynamic driver of agricultural transformation but this does not reduce the importance of maintaining a clear commitment to supporting smallholder farms. Strengthening land tenure security of local rural people to maintain land rights and support productivity investments by smallholder households remains crucial.