Farmland conversion to non-agricultural uses in the US and Canada: current impacts and concerns for the future

Conversion of farmland to non-agricultural uses presents a challenge to future food production and ecosystem services in US and Canada. Expansions of housing, transportation, industry, retail sales, schools and other developments are driving land out of farming. In the US there is annual conversion of 500,000 ha away from food and fibre production systems. Coupled with 1% annual population increase, this will reduce today's 0.6 ha per person to 0.3 ha by 2050. Canada has more land and smaller population, but farmland losses are occurring in fertile areas near coasts and in level valleys where highest quality land is located. Current rates of increase in agricultural productivity will not compensate for this land loss. Compared to US, there are more specific tools and legislation at the provincial level in Canada that provide opportunities for controlling sprawl. Important in both countries is general lack of awareness and concern about loss of productive farmland, a situation that could be improved through education. Stimulating collective understanding of this growing problem and providing viable solutions could provide the basis for national policy strategies to promote and assure sustainable food systems for the future and enhance the capacity to maintain vital ecosystem services.     

Loss of preferential access to the protected EU sugar market: Fiji's response

The Fijian government's response since 2010 to the loss of preferential access to the European Union's previously highly protected sugar market has been to increasingly support its cane growers and millers. That support is now much higher than most other countries' assistance to the sugar industry. This study provides detailed estimates of the changing extent of those transfers to producers from both taxpayers and consumers during 2010–22. In doing so, it estimates for the first time an annual time series of nominal rates of assistance to producers and consumer tax equivalent rates (NRAs and CTEs, but they are also converted to producer and consumer support estimates as defined by the OECD). Those NRA and CTE estimates have been approaching 100%. The level of support was equivalent to 10% of Fiji's agricultural value added in 2018–21 and is around 5% of its government's consolidated revenue—at a time when the government has a very high debt-to-GDP ratio (90% in 2022). Since the nature of the support is economically inefficient, inequitable, environmentally damaging and fiscally unsustainable given foreseeable market prospects, suggestions are made as to how that support might be repurposed to provide better economic, social and environmental outcomes for Fiji.     

Monitoring land use and land cover changes in the mountainous cities of Oman using GIS and CA-Markov modelling techniques

As a result of the socioeconomic transformation, the rapid urban expansion of cities and towns in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states has predominately led to tremendous pressure on the limited natural resources and loss of productive lands. Indeed, the spatial patterns of urbanisation and their impacts on mountain resources and environment have received little attention, particularly in Oman. Predicting urban growth in the mountainous cities has the potential to better understand the interaction between the spatial growth patterns and the mountain topography. This study aims to analyse spatiotemporal dynamics of land use/land cover (LULC) (2008–2018) and simulate urban expansion (2008–2038) in Nizwa city, Al Dakhliyah governorate, Oman. Cellular Automata (CA)-Markov and geospatial techniques were utilised to assess and project urban growth and land cover changes. The analysis was based on three maps of LULC at equal intervals derived from satellite imageries: Landsat TM for 1998, 2008 and 2018, along with topographic spatial layers (elevation, aspects, and terrain slopes) derived from the ASTER digital elevation model. In addition, other spatial parameters (population density, proximity to urban centres, and proximity to major roads,) were incorporated in the simulation process. The findings revealed that the actual LULC change during 2008–2018 was 12,014 ha of net urban growth (418.5 % change), while the simulated change was expected to be 14,985 ha by 2028, with a total of 37,465 ha increase in the built-up area and urban growth by 2038. Although the topographic variability will control LULC changes, the urban expansion overly will occupy the arable land across the valleys along with the flat areas. During the next two decades, the built-up areas will dominant, with a large percentage of vacant land (net loss 12,813 ha) and vegetation cover (net loss 35 ha) will be gradually converted into residential land use. The output of the simulations in this research could serve not only as spatial guidelines for monitoring future trends of LULC dynamics, but also address the threats and deteriorates of urban sustainability in the Omani mountainous cities. Furthermore, identifying bare soils and vegetation areas that are susceptible to urbanisation is of value for the national strategy of future urban planning in Oman.     

农用地整理对区域景观动态与生态风险影响研究——以福建省建溪流域为例

研究目的:以福建省建溪流域为例,基于2010—2016年的景观类型数据和农用地整理数据,分析农用地整理对区域景观动态和生态风险的影响。研究方法:单一变量法,景观格局指数,生态风险指数。研究结果:(1)2010—2016年间通过农用地整理工程增加的耕地主要在海拔高于300 m的区域;(2)农用地整理工程中的新增耕地主要来源于草地、园地和林地,也有部分城镇村及工矿用地、交通用地等由于村庄合并或矿区土地复垦等原因被整理为耕地;(3)每一种农用地整理工程类型都是一种风险源,其释放的风险压力主要有景观单一化和景观破碎化两种;(4)2010—2016年建溪流域的生态风险值介于2 386.11～2 394.76,2010年后生态风险指数逐年降低。研究结论:本文对大尺度上关于农用地整理对景观生态的影响研究有借鉴意义,可以为区域尺度的土地利用优化设计和农用地整理设计规划提供科学依据。     

Identifying deforestation attractors and patterns of fragmentation for seasonally dry tropical forest in central Veracruz,Mexico

Seasonally dry tropical forests (SDTF) are exposed to numerous threats stemming from human activity and are considered a high conservation priority globally. Nevertheless, planning the conservation, management, and restoration of forests requires a detailed regional understanding of current forest distribution, and patterns and attractors of deforestation. We explored SDTF cover in the state of Veracruz, Mexico, where little is known about this type of forest since it was erroneously considered to have been eliminated and thus has not be included in recent conservation planning in Mexico. A time-series of land use and land cover (LULC) maps, based on Landsat imagery from 1973 (MSS), 1990 (TM), and 2000 (ETM+), was used to analyze historical patterns of deforestation and fragmentation of SDTF in a priority watershed in central Veracruz. Stepwise logistic regression was used to identify the main attractors of forest loss. Maps based on higher resolution SPOT imagery (2007–2008) were used to determine the current extent of SDTF. Results from our LULC analysis revealed landscapes that were consistently dominated (>50%) by some combination of intensified land use including cattle pastures, rain-fed and irrigated agricultural lands, with closed SDTF cover fluctuating from 11.3 to 9.26% during the study period (1973–2007). Annualized rates of forest loss between Landsat images (1973 vs. 2000; −2.02%) and between Landsat and SPOT images (1973 vs. 2007; −0.59), were moderate to low, with historical records suggesting that most deforestation occurred more than a century ago before the Mexican revolution. Nevertheless, rates of forest loss varied considerable between different time periods, with slight reforestation initially (1.55%; 1973–1990), followed by a marked decline (−8.08%; 1990–2000), and finally a noticeable increases in forest cover (4.92%; 2000–2007) that corresponds with changes in public policy and trends in population migration. The number of forest patches tripled between 1973 and 2000 and the mean forest patch area decreased almost 80% over the same time period. Logistic regression analysis (1973–2000) indicated that the main attractors of closed forest transformation were proximity to gentle slopes, cattle pastures, and the hydraulic infrastructure needed for crop irrigation. Although SDTF is highly fragmented and perturbed, important remnants of this diverse native forest still persists in the region. Our findings are discussed in the context of future conservation and restoration efforts.     

全国农业资源一张图研制技术探讨

目的 文章围绕全国农业资源一张图生产需求,借助空间大数据处理技术,研究利用2018年度全国土地变更调查县级成果,加工全国及82个绿色农业先行示范区耕地、草地、水域农业资源空间分布图的关键技术和方法,探索全国农业资源一张图生产技术流程。方法 需求分析和软件研发相结合。结果 基于全国统一地理网格框架,设计由2 880个县级土地利用数据库生产集成化全国耕地、草地、水域空间分布栅格图的技术流程,并开发了一体化处理软件平台,形成了全国、2个省、11地市、69县区多尺度耕地、草地、水域等农业资源一张图。结论 综合采用现代空间信息集成技术,利用国家年度土地变更调查县级土地调查数据快速生产全国农业资源（耕地、草地、水域）一张图栅格数据的技术路线可行,且产品质量可靠,可为全国农业资源管理提供较好的基础数据支撑。     

Land expansion and growth in low‐ and middle‐income countries*

Over past decades, low and middle‐income countries have experienced considerable expansion of agricultural land, yet this effect on growth has not been examined The following paper shows that the Solow‐Swan growth model can be extended to the case whereby arable land is expanding, as originally suggested by Solow (1956). This extension indicates that land expansion boosts growth, and this effect increases with the relative share of land in income. An empirical analysis over 1990–2018 for 138 low and middle‐income countries supports this finding. The growth impact of land expansion over 1990–2018 varied significantly across the sample of countries depending on how much income was derived from land. This result explains why countries dependent on agriculture have engaged in extensive land expansion: it boosts overall growth. However, these growth benefits must be weighed against the considerable environmental costs of converting forests and other natural habitat to more agricultural land, such as increased carbon emissions, loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity, risk of disease, and impacts on local livelihoods.     

新时期加大农村土地流转力度的思考

[目的]在系统阐述我国土地流转现状的基础上探索新形势下加大土地流转力度的新思路,以期为新形势下的农村土地流转提供理论参考。[方法]文章运用文献研究法和调查法,对我国目前土地流转的模式、面积、速度等进行调查和分析,总结目前的发展趋势,寻求新形势下加快农村土地流转的措施。[结果]2007~2014年,我国农村土地流转面积在稳步上升中,从2007的0.042亿hm~2增长到了2014的0.269亿hm~2,翻了6倍多。2007年约为424.8万hm~2,仅占家庭承包耕地总面积的5.2%。截止2014年底,全国家庭承包耕地流转面积达到2 686.7万hm~2,比2013年底增长18.3%;流转面积占家庭承包经营耕地面积的30.4%,比2013年提高4.7个百分点。2007~2010年,农村土地流转面积年际变化逐年减小,从2007~2008年的0.031亿hm~2减少到2009~2010年的0.025亿hm~2;2011~2014年,农村土地流转面积年际变化呈现为逐年增加的趋势,从2010~2011年的0.027亿hm~2增加到2013~2014年的0.042亿hm~2。2007~2010年,农村土地流转面积年际增幅呈现逐渐下降的趋势,从73.8%急速下降到25%;从2010年开始,农村土地流转面积年际增幅趋于稳定,保持在21%左右,上下浮动不大。[结论]农村土地流转速度和进程逐渐加快,规模越来越大,流转形式多样化并存协调发展。国内土地流转面积表现出渐趋增加的态势,年际增幅趋于稳定,规模运营表现出攀升趋势。由于国家政策,市场经济的发展,农村形势的改善等原因,我国的土地流转进程进一步得到推动和加快。     

Land use dynamics in the central highlands of Vietnam: a spatial model combining village survey data with satellite imagery interpretation

The paper investigates geo‐physical, agro‐ecological, and socio‐economic determinants of past land use change in two districts of Dak Lak province in the Central Highlands of Vietnam and assesses the influence of rural development policies on land cover change. Landsat satellite images from the years 1975, 1992 and 2000 are interpreted to detect land cover in two time periods. A survey in randomly selected villages provides primary recall data on socio‐economic and policy variables hypothesised to influence land use change. Secondary data on rainfall, soil suitability, and topography was obtained from meteorological stations and from a digital soil map and digital elevation model. All data were spatially referenced using geographic information systems (GIS) software. A reduced‐form, multinomial logit model is used to estimate the influence of hypothesised determinants on land use and the probabilities that a certain pixel has one of five land classes during either of the two periods. Results suggest that the first period from 1975 to 1992 was characterised by land‐intensive agricultural expansion and the conversion of forest into grass and agricultural land. During the second period, since 1992, the rapid, more labour‐ and capital‐intensive growth in the agricultural sector was enabled by the introduction of fertiliser, improved access to rural roads and markets, and expansion of the irrigated area. These policies, combined with the introduction of protected forest areas and policies discouraging shifting cultivation during the second period reduced the pressure on forests while at the same time increasing agricultural productivity and incomes for a growing population. Forest cover during the second period mainly increased due to the regeneration of areas formerly used for shifting cultivation.     

Loss of land and livelihoods from mining operations: A case in the Limpopo Province,South Africa

Loss or degradation of communal lands can have major implications for people’s livelihoods and well-being in rural underdeveloped areas. Mining operations are one driver of land loss with negative implications for people. This study assesses the livelihood effects of open-cast mining on a rural communal land village that lost 8 000 ha of land and compares it to another village nearby that did not. The results suggest that the loss of land and the ecosystem services they provide has negatively affected people’s livelihood strategies and outcomes. On average, only 23 % of households in the affected village had crop fields compared to an adjacent village, that did not lose land to the mine, where 90 % of households had a crop field. This accounts for substantial losses in income through agriculture, both as cash earnings and savings, and negatively affects household food security. As a result of the mine the affected community has also lost access to grazing, and now many households must pay to graze their livestock in other areas. Furthermore, the option to harvest several key natural resources (provisioning services) or non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as wild fruits and vegetables, edible insects, fuelwood, and to a lesser extent resources like reeds and medicinal plants were lost due to the mine, negatively impacting local livelihoods. NTFPs are important for rural livelihoods as they allow for cash saving, income generation and act as a safety net or fall-back option during times of increased vulnerability. The findings also give a good indication of changes in agriculture and resource use over time and the varying reasons for this. Other negative effects from the mine included; cracking of houses due to blasting, dust pollution, water contamination, social and cultural effects, community alterations and conflicts, and very little was seen to be gained in terms of employment through Social Labour Plans (SLPs) or corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Households in the village affected by the mine lose approximately R 15 000 per year through losses of agricultural potential and the ability to collect NTFPs, which is larger than the annual cash incomes for most households. This value is likely to be an underestimate of the total value lost, as reductions in grazing potential and the loss of supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services were not included in this figure. This study highlights the importance of considering land access and associated land-based livelihoods in rural communal land areas in the context of disturbance and change. Recommendations for future assessments and policy on compensation for rural communities are made and issues relating to CSR are discussed.     

Land and water footprints associated with rice and maize losses in Brazil

Food loss and waste (FLW) implies the loss of valuable natural resources; this has a negative impact on economic, environmental, and social issues, worldwide. As a prominent world food producer, Brazil has high levels of food loss and, hence, loss/waste of natural resources. This study aims to estimate the amount of the land footprint (LF) and water footprint (WF) associated with rice and maize losses in Brazil. The investigation involved the analysis of annual data obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics (IBGE) regarding the planted areas, harvested area, and the production and loss of rice and maize in Brazil from 1988–2017, in order to estimate the LF and WF associated with rice and maize losses. In Brazil, rice loss is responsible for an average annual LF of 400,000 ha with a negative trend (slope) of 13,852 ha/year and maize loss is responsible for an average annual LF of 1.26 million ha with a negative trend (slope) of 7973 ha/year. In Brazil, the average annual LF of rice loss is about 11.46 % of the rice planted area and the average annual LF of maize loss is about 9.34 % of the maize planted area. Rice loss is associated with an average annual WF of 3.06 billion m³ and maize loss is associated with an average annual WF of 7.37 billion m³. The average annual WF per ha of planted area for maize and rice losses is 533 m³/ha and 949 m³/ha, respectively. The results reinforce the need for promoting actions to drastically reduce FLW, worldwide. This study encourages the adoption of more drastic public policies in order to reduce FLW and, consequently, decrease the waste of natural resources and curtail the associated environmental impacts.     

山东省农用地数量变化及生态安全评价

[目的]文章针对山东省的农用地数量进行统计并通过生态安全指数来评价农用地的生态安全性,以期为山东省的农用地保护和利用提供借鉴。[方法]采用统计分析法研究2007~2016年山东省农用地数量变化。采用层次分析法(AHP)构建由17项指标构成的农用地生态安全评价体系,并采用土地生态安全模型计算单项和综合安全指数来评价农用地的生态安全性。[结果]2007~2016年,10年间山东省农用地的面积未出现较大变动,一直保持在1 150万hm~2以上。经计算,山东省2010年和2015年的农用地生态安全值分别为0.597 2和0.636 6,按照山东省农用地生态安全综合评价标准可以看出,2010年和2015年的农用地生态安全等级均为"敏感级",但2015年比2010年的安全值略有提升。[结论]山东省农用地数量在2007~2016年的10年间未出现较大变动,一直保持在1 000万hm~2以上。2010年和2015年山东省农用地生态安全状态处于敏感级。虽然5年间生态安全值略有上升,但仍有很多生态安全问题需要注意,尤其是农药化肥的施用量,需要及时进行调整和治理,以避免发生更加严重的农用地生态安全问题,切实保障全省农用地生态安全和粮食安全。     

Reconstructing production efficiency,land use and trade for livestock systems in historical perspective. The case of France, 1961–2010

This paper provides an original accounting of changes in livestock production efficiency per livestock category in historical perspective and connects livestock consumption with land requirements and virtual land trade. We use France as a demonstration study and account for productivity changes in terms of energy. Feed rations composition are reconstructed per livestock production and feed crop group over time to account for changes in land use in relation to dietary changes. Land requirements for consumption in France dropped by 28% over the study period besides an increase by 35% of the human population and by 53% of the livestock consumption. The two-fold increase in agricultural productivity is due, for half, to energy conversion efficiency improvements and for half to agricultural yields. Overall, the livestock energy conversion efficiency increased by 45% from 1961 to 2010, poultry gained 84%, pork 17%, sheep&goat 67% and cattle 27%. The feed share of oilcrops and cereals in animal rations doubled against a drop by 35% of feed from pastures. Virtual land imports for oilcrops in relation to livestock consumption in France today amount to 0.9 million ha against a maximum of 1.9 million ha in 1979. Besides its dependence on oilcrops imports, the French livestock sector displays net virtual land exports ranging from about 2.5–5.3 million ha per year over the study period. Gross virtual land trade is today five times higher than the net virtual trade. The difference highlights the share of circular product loops in increasingly integrated agricultural markets at the international scale.     

广东省县域乡村土地利用功能的时空分异及影响因素研究

研究目的:探讨2010—2018年广东乡村土地利用功能的类型识别、时空差异以及影响因素。研究方法:系统聚类、因子分析、地理探测器。研究结果:(1)基于土地利用结构,乡村土地利用可分为耕地型、园地型、林地型、设施农用地型、建设用地型、均衡型6种类型;(2)生态功能始终为广东省县域乡村发展主因子,非农生产功能凸显,农业生产功能、生活功能仍是乡村特征重要组成,不同乡村类型的功能因子存在空间异质性;(3)土地类型、地理区位、城镇化、人口流动、古村落分布、交通运输等对广东乡村土地利用功能具有显著影响,且不同功能因子影响因素各有差异。研究结论:乡村土地利用功能存在时空异质性,应分区分类制定差异化土地利用政策。     

THE EGYPTIAN STATE AND AGRICULTURAL LAND MARKET 1810–1986

The paper examines the economic effects of state policy on land transactions in Egyptian agriculture since 1810, with special reference to the post-1952 government intervention in the land market. Following a combination of historical and econometric approaches, the analysis shows that: (i) under conditions of market forces, factor prices responded to changes in land-labour ratio, cotton price and output value, and landlords' monopoly power was dominant; (ii) while the inequality was sharply reduced after equity-directed intervention, value productivity of the scarce factor, land, has lost its significance in determining rental values and the effective supply of land has, since 1970, declined together with agricultural growth rates; and (iii) there has been a trade-off between equity and agricultural growth during periods of non-intervention and relaxation of tight State control of the land market. Proposals for policy adjustment are presented.     

中国耕地非粮化空间格局分异及驱动机制

研究目的：摸清耕地非粮化的总体态势,揭示非粮化空间分异及驱动机制,为国家粮食安全和耕地保护政策调整提供科学依据。研究方法：空间自相关分析法、多重共线性诊断与多元回归分析方法。研究结果：（1）2018年耕地非粮化面积约为54.47×106 hm2,占耕地总面积的32.29%;（2）非粮化面积主要集中于中南部和北部,但高非粮化率主要集中于新疆、贵州和东南沿海。非粮化面积与非粮化率呈现显著不同的空间集聚特征;（3）农业实际利用外资额、城乡居民可支配收入比、农业机械总动力、乡村劳动力、土地流转面积与非粮化面积对数呈显著性正相关关系,共同驱动了全国非粮化的空间格局。但不同尺度、不同区域耕地非粮化驱动因子的空间异质性显著。研究结论：受经济、社会、政策和资源配置等多重因素影响,中国不同尺度下非粮化时空格局差异悬殊、驱动因子空间异质性显著。今后应科学设定非粮化底线、优化农业资源配置、推进农业差别化补贴,严控非粮化无序增长、稳固国家粮食安全的基石。     

基于DEA模型的荆州市耕地资源利用效率分析

[目的]为了研究荆州市耕地资源利用效率程度,探究全市耕地资源开发利用方向。[方法]文章通过选取2010~2015年的荆州市农作物播种面积、农用机械总动力、农用化肥使用量和农业从业人员作为投入指标,以农业总产值、农业增加值和粮食总产量为产出值,构建荆州市耕地资源投入产出指标体系,采用DEA模型对全市耕地资源利用效率进行分析。[结果]2010~2015年间,荆州市耕地资源利用DEA除2010年无效外,其余年份都有效,DEA有效年份达到83%,在DEA无效年份,耕地资源综合效率也达到0.994,表明荆州市耕地资源利用效率处于较高的利用水平。[结论]提出荆州市耕地资源开发利用建议,要充分利用自身优势,稳定发展种植业;改进施肥技术,提高农田肥料利用水平;充分开发农村人力资源市场,增强全市农业综合生产能力。     

Trends in global virtual land trade in relation to agricultural products

Trade volume of agricultural products can be used to quantify the virtual land transfers between countries. This study assessed the virtual land trade (VLT) associated with the global trade of agricultural products using specific crop yield of exporting countries and gave insights in characteristics of different products and different countries. In addition, the features of trade connections were also displayed by network analysis. The results showed that the total virtual land within global agricultural trade increased from 128 million hectare (ha) in 1986 to 350 million ha in 2016, the average annual growth rate was 5.73 %. Increases in trade of oil crops contributed the largest share to this. The proportion of exported land area in total harvested land area increased for almost all categories of agricultural products. Countries engaged in global agricultural trade could be divided into three groups, net exporters, net importers and countries with balanced VLT. The net importers could be further divided into the countries with absolutely scarce land resources and the countries with relative scarce resources. All net virtual land exporters are the countries with more land resources per capita, such as the United States, Brazil and Argentina. Income growth and changes in diet structure are main factors driving increases in VLT. The VLT network became more complex over the study period, with the number of import and export nodes increasing continuously, and the cumulative distributions of export and import node strength following power law distributions. The major links and players within national, geographic, and economic groups also changed significantly over the study period. VLT has a deep impact on society, economy and environment, appropriate policies should be taken to make these interlinkages more sustainable for both importers and exporters.     

The demise of swidden-fallow agriculture in an Atlantic Rainforest region: Implications for farmers’ livelihood and conservation

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is widely recognized for its high levels of biodiversity and endemism. Its vast region concentrates also a large number of small farmers, who historically have been practicing swidden-fallow cultivation. Globally, there is contradictory evidence of the current fate of this traditional, integrated agricultural system, and the new land uses may have a strong impact on farmers’ livelihoods and ecosystem conservation. In this study, we assessed the land cover and land use change in a watershed where slash-and-burn cultivation was prevalent, aiming at understanding the drivers of change and discussing past and possible future impacts, including the perception of farmers on the drivers of land use change. We combined information gathered from interviews with 15 key informant farmers and from the analysis of remote sensing images for the years 1957, 1978 and 2011. Swidden-fallow cultivation has declined steadily since the 1950s. Part of the land was abandoned and forest succession was allowed to occur, increasing the total forest area; an apparently positive outcome. However, conversion to pastures and Eucalyptus plantations not only used much of the open land but also converted successional forests through deforestation, based on remote sensing. The willingness of farmers to grow more Eucalyptus and raise more cattle further increases concerns about the prospect for conservation. Our approach, combining remote sensing-based land change quantification and interviews, revealed to be complementary, allowing a better understanding of the past and possible future scenarios for the land use dynamics.     

ASPECTS OF FARM PROFITABILITY: AN OUTMODED CONCEPT? PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

The paper begins by recording Journal articles since 1952 of relevance to farming incomes and efficiency, and follows by reviewing the literature on measuring farmers' incomes and the problems entailed, including consideration of non-farming incomes and capital gains and their relevance to agricultural policy. Definitions of ‘profit’ in selected economic texts are then compared, together with attempts to measure ‘pure profit’ from farming. Suitable charges for management and interest are then determined and estimates made of net profits and losses from different types of farming in 1986/7 and 1987/8 for both average and ‘top’ farms. Real farming incomes and capital gains from land from 1938 to 1988 are then discussed. The paper concludes by summarising why the concept of profitability from farming has now largely lost its significance—though not for all farmers.