Monetary policy in emerging markets: Can liability dollarization explain contractionary devaluations?

In emerging markets, external debt is denominated almost entirely in large, developed country currencies such as the U.S. dollar. This liability dollarization offers a channel through which exchange rate variation can lead to business cycle instability. When firms' assets are denominated in domestic currency and liabilities are denominated in foreign currency, an exchange rate depreciation worsens firms' balance sheets, which leads to higher capital costs and contractions in capital spending. To illustrate this, I construct a quantitative, sticky price, small open economy model in which a monetary policy induced devaluation leads to a persistent contraction in output. In this model, fixed exchange rates offer greater stability than an interest rule that targets inflation.     

The Empirics of International Monetary Transmission: Identification and the Impossible Trinity

The transmission of monetary policy across borders is central to many open economy models. Research has tried to evaluate the “impossible trinity” through estimating international interest rate linkages under alternative exchange rate regimes using realized base country interest rates. Such interest rates include anticipated and endogenous elements, which need not propagate internationally. We compare international interest rate responses under pegged and non‐pegged regimes to identified, unanticipated, and exogenous U.S. interest rate changes and realized U.S. interest rate changes. We find important differences in estimated transmission from the two sets of measures—identified interest rate changes demonstrate a greater concordance with the impossible trinity than realized rate changes.     

全球金融周期、美国货币政策与“三元悖论”

全球金融周期存在的背景下“三元悖论”是否依然成立充满争议。本文通过构建包含银行与金融摩擦的两国DSGE模型,为考察全球金融周期的形成提供了理论依据。美国货币政策通过资本流动传导到外围国金融市场,使外围国信贷利率、银行风险承担以及杠杆率与美国银行趋同,形成全球金融周期。金融渠道的传导速度快于实体经济渠道导致外围国国内经济周期与金融周期相背离,外围国想要稳定经济就不得不与美国保持同向的政策利率变化,货币政策独立性将不再存在。随着全球经济一体化进程加速,估值效应的作用越来越明显,浮动汇率制度并不能隔离全球金融周期的影响也无法保证货币政策的独立性。在资本账户开放的情况下,外围国金融市场越不发达,受全球金融周期的影响越大,货币政策越不独立。     

Domestic and foreign disturbances in an optimizing model of exchange-rate determination

This paper analyzes the effects of various disturbances of domestic and foreign origin in a small open economy under imperfect capital mobility in which the behavioral relationships are divided from optimization by the private sector. In this model the domestic economy jumps instantaneously to its new equilibrium following a change in either the domestic monetary growth rate or domestic fiscal policy. In response to a disturbance in either the foreign interest rate or inflation rate, the economy undergoes an initial partial jump towards its new equilibrium, which it thereafter approaches gradually. The implications of these results for exchange-rate adjustments and the insulation properties of flexible exchange rates are discussed.     

中国货币政策目标制的选择——基于开放经济体的实证

本文使用开放经济下的新凯恩斯模型实证分析了开放经济体中不同的货币政策目标制。结果表明,面对国内利率政策、技术、国外通货膨胀、国外产出和国外实际利率冲击时,由灵活通货膨胀目标、资本自由流动和完全浮动的汇率构成的货币政策目标体系能够有效吸收冲击,减缓经济波动。相比而言,严格通胀目标制无法有效吸收国内外冲击,所以我国在开放经济下选择货币政策目标时,并不一定要选择严格通货膨胀目标,可以选择一些灵活通货膨胀目标的政策框架。此外,能够有效吸收各种冲击的灵活通胀目标、资本自由流动和完全浮动汇率制组成的目标体系也为我国货币政策和汇率制度改革提供了方向。     

Sterilization and interest rates

In this note, the effect of a rise in the foreign interest rate on the home rate is considered in a small economy model with a fixed exchange rate. The cases of sterilization annd non-sterilization are considered. The effect of the degree of substitutability beteen domestic and foreign bonds is outlined.     

Behind the scenes of abandoning a fixed exchange rate regime

This paper explores the process of abandoning a fixed exchange rate regime during sudden stops in a small open economy. The Bank of Korea’s exchange rate policy reports during the East Asian crisis suggest that its fixed exchange rate regime was forced to collapse due to the depletion of usable foreign reserves, which resulted from the credit policy of the Korean central bank to support domestic banks in need of foreign currency liquidity. To capture the Korean crisis experience, I build a quantitative small open economy model in which, in response to the country risk premium shock, the foreign-currency credit policy of a central bank under fixed regime leads to the exhaustion of international reserves and consequent exchange rate regime shift. This model does well at replicating the observed contraction in Korean aggregate variables.     

De facto exchange rate regimes and currency crises: Are pegged regimes with capital account liberalization really more prone to speculative attacks?

This paper empirically examines whether de facto exchange rate regimes affect the occurrence of currency crises in 84 countries over the 1980–2001 period by using the probit model. We employ the de facto classification of Reinhart and Rogoff (2004) that allows us to estimate the impact of relatively long-lived exchange rate regimes on currency crises with much greater precision. We find that pegged regimes significantly decrease the likelihood of currency crises compared with floating regimes. By using the combined data of exchange rate regimes and the existence of capital controls, we also find interesting evidence that pegged regimes with capital account liberalization significantly lower the likelihood of currency crises compared with other regimes. These results are robust to a wide variety of samples and models. From the standpoint of the macroeconomic policy trilemma, we can conjecture that pegged regimes with capital account liberalization are substantially less prone to speculative attacks because they can enhance greater credibility in their currencies by abandoning monetary policy autonomy.     

Capital Controls and the International Transmission of U.S. Money Shocks

We assess whether capital controls effectively insulate countries from U.S. monetary shocks, examining a large range of country experiences in a unified estimation framework. We estimate the effect of identified U.S. monetary shocks on the exchange rate and foreign country interest rates, and test whether countries with less open capital accounts exhibit systematically smaller responses. We find essentially no evidence of this. Other country factors such as the exchange rate regime or degree of dollarization explain more of the cross-country differences in responses. The significant differences in responses we do find are more pronounced at short horizons.     

美联储政策变化、国际资本流动与宏观经济波动

本文构建包含国际投资者、外资企业和银行流动性冲击的DSGE模型来探究美联储货币政策变动和政策不确定性对我国宏观经济的影响和作用机制。研究发现:(1) 美联储加息会导致我国产出、投资和通货膨胀的下降、汇率贬值、国际资本外流和银行系统流动性紧张。随着金融摩擦程度的增加和银行杠杆率的上升,美联储加息对我国产出、投资和资产价格的负面影响会进一步增强。(2) 美联储货币政策不确定性的增加会直接导致外资企业的投资、劳动需求和产出的下降,并对我国总产出、总投资和资产价格产生明显的负向外溢效应,进一步加剧我国宏观经济的波动。(3)为应对美联储的利率变动,适当限制国际资本流动能有效稳定我国经济波动和改善社会福利,而实施固定汇率和央行盯住美国利率的政策会加大宏观经济的波动,并导致社会福利下降。     

Capital controls and monetary policy autonomy in a small open economy

Is there a link between capital controls and monetary policy autonomy in a country with a floating currency? Shocks to capital flows into a small open economy lead to volatility in asset prices and credit supply. To lessen the impact of capital flows on financial instability, a central bank finds it optimal to use the domestic interest rate to “manage” the capital account. Capital account restrictions affect the behavior of optimal monetary policy following shocks to the foreign interest rate. Capital controls allow optimal monetary policy to focus less on the foreign interest rate and more on domestic variables.     

利差、美元指数与跨境资本流动

一般认为跨境资本流动由利差决定,政策制定也强调利差对资本流动的指示意义。但本文发现,中国跨境资本流动历史上主要是由套汇而非套息资本决定,且套汇的显著指标是多边美元指数(DXY)而非人民币兑美元双边汇率,我们把这一现象称之为“中国的跨境资本流动之谜”。我们提出,汇率影响大于利率且多边汇率影响大于双边汇率的原因在于人民币兑美元双边汇率历史上波动幅度较小,及时和充分反映中美基本面的分化还不够。美元指数是市场指标,能够预示人民币兑美元双边汇率的走势,进而驱动资本流动。进一步研究发现,由于中国经济的外溢效应,中美经济基本面的分化不仅决定中美利差,还在很大程度上驱动美欧、美日经济基本面的分化,进而略有时滞地驱动美元指数。因此,中美利差在统计意义上是美元指数的同步甚至略微领先的指标,从这个意义上讲,政策制定仍要关注利差。随着人民币汇率弹性增强,中美利差和美元指数对中国跨境资本流动的解释力都会边际减弱。     

Dealing with Time Inconsistency: Inflation Targeting versus Exchange Rate Targeting

Adopting a single instead of multiple targets can be an effective way to overcome the classic time‐inconsistency problem. The choice of a single mandate depends on the trade openness and the credibility. Reduced‐form empirical results show as central banks become less credible, they are more likely to adopt a pegged exchange rate, and the tendency to peg depends on trade openness. In a model with “loose commitment,” as credibility falls, either an inflation target or a pegged exchange rate is more likely to be adopted. A relatively closed (highly open) economy would adopt an inflation target (exchange rate peg).     

贸易摩擦、宏观经济波动与经济开放程度的选择

本文构建一个包含关税冲击以及外汇风险溢价的两国开放经济DSGE模型,创新地揭示了关税冲击造成实际汇率波动的“直接效应”与“间接效应”,刻画了关税变动、贸易条件与实际汇率之间的动态关系与作用机制。我们深入分析了不同经济开放程度下贸易摩擦造成的宏观经济波动以及经济福利损失。模拟结果表明,在一定贸易开放程度下,外国加收关税一方面会导致本国贸易条件恶化,引发出口及产出下降;另一方面会导致本国汇率贬值,引发出口及产出增长。关税冲击发生后短期中汇率贬值效应占优,本国产出会出现小幅上升,随后贸易条件恶化效应逐步显现,产出持续下降。福利分析结果表明,本国适度提升贸易开放度,虽然经济福利损失会小幅上升,但福利损失增加幅度小于外国,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对优势;如果本国过度提高贸易开放度,则会导致本国福利损失大幅增加,并且大于外国福利损失增幅,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对劣势。因此,应适度逐步有序地提升贸易开放度。此外,本国适度推进资本账户开放的政策能够改善贸易条件,促进本国经济增长。     

贸易摩擦、宏观经济波动与经济开放程度的选择

本文构建一个包含关税冲击以及外汇风险溢价的两国开放经济DSGE模型,创新地揭示了关税冲击造成实际汇率波动的“直接效应”与“间接效应”,刻画了关税变动、贸易条件与实际汇率之间的动态关系与作用机制。我们深入分析了不同经济开放程度下贸易摩擦造成的宏观经济波动以及经济福利损失。模拟结果表明,在一定贸易开放程度下,外国加收关税一方面会导致本国贸易条件恶化,引发出口及产出下降;另一方面会导致本国汇率贬值,引发出口及产出增长。关税冲击发生后短期中汇率贬值效应占优,本国产出会出现小幅上升,随后贸易条件恶化效应逐步显现,产出持续下降。福利分析结果表明,本国适度提升贸易开放度,虽然经济福利损失会小幅上升,但福利损失增加幅度小于外国,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对优势;如果本国过度提高贸易开放度,则会导致本国福利损失大幅增加,并且大于外国福利损失增幅,会在贸易摩擦竞争中形成相对劣势。因此,应适度逐步有序地提升贸易开放度。此外,本国适度推进资本账户开放的政策能够改善贸易条件,促进本国经济增长。     

外汇风险传染网络测度与影响机制分析--基于静态和动态的双重视角

国际争端频发及不确定性风险增加的外部环境,叠加经济下行压力增大的内部环境,致使汇率波动变得更加敏感,外汇风险传染危害性提升。基于1999-2018年全球50种主要货币,本文引入复杂网络模型以及静态与动态两类相关系数算法,分析了汇率网络的总体关联性及各货币风险吸收效应和外溢效应。同时,本文采用混合效应面板回归研究了资本账户开放、汇率制度改革等政策因素的作用,在此基础上,分析了外汇风险传染的影响机制。研究发现,考察期内,各货币波动溢出比收益率溢出更平稳,收益率溢出关系稳定性相对较弱、变动幅度更大,这与金融危机和欧债危机爆发有关。全球主要货币总体关联性具有明显的时变特征和区制特征,且波动溢出与收益率溢出存在区制同步性。资本账户开放和汇率制度是外汇风险传染的重要影响因素,汇率市场化改革有助于缓释外汇风险传染,而资本账户开放将扩大外汇风险传染效应。     

当前人民币汇率制度选择的理论思考

任何汇率制度都只是实现经济目标的手段而不是目的,我们在各个时期选择的汇率制度应该是对我国经济发展最有利的制度。在现有的国际货币体系下,如果资本项目尚未开放,则理性的选择应该是固定汇率制度;如果资本项目已完全开放,则实行浮动汇率制是有效而保险的。对于中国这样一个资本账户部分开放的国家,现阶段重新回到真正意义上的有管理的浮动汇率制是必要的,也是可行的。     

货币政策与宏观审慎政策共同支持宏观经济稳定

货币政策是维持宏观经济稳定运行的重要政策工具,但2007—2009年国际金融危机表明,仅仅保持物价水平稳定,忽视金融风险,并不足以维持宏观经济稳定。近年来中国提出双支柱宏观政策框架以支持宏观经济稳定,这一创新具有重要的理论与现实意义。我们首先提出了双支柱宏观调控的框架,强调应该注重两类政策目标的协同与矛盾、政策传导渠道的相互交叉与影响、冲击类型与开放条件的差异等,从而保证双支柱宏观调控对宏观经济的稳定效应。接下来,我们建立了一个DSGE两国模型,作为分析双支柱宏观调控稳定宏观经济的案例研究。研究表明,第一,金融冲击下,货币政策有助于稳定宏观经济,且随着汇率制度从固定转向浮动,货币政策稳定宏观经济的效果会明显加强。第二,在货币政策的基础上,增加以跨境资本流入税为代表的宏观审慎政策工具,可以有效遏制金融市场的顺周期机制,进一步提高宏观经济的稳定性,从而验证了双支柱宏观调控的有效性。第三,双支柱宏观调控的有效性与汇率制度有关,当汇率灵活性水平较低时,双支柱宏观调控对宏观经济的稳定效果更好。     

Financial friction in an emerging economy

The objective of this study is to evaluate the role of the frictional domestic credit market in an emerging country by using a small-open-economy DSGE model with a banking sector. The calibration results show that the financial friction does not significantly influence the macroeconomic effects of the shocks to the domestic productivity, foreign interest rate and export demand. We also evaluate whether and how the trade and financial openness can influence the effects of the domestic financial shocks that in turn affect the supply of loans in the credit market. We show that greater trade and financial openness can reduce the macroeconomic impacts of the domestic financial distress. Under a more open international capital market, the capital outflow caused by the domestic financial shock does not lead to drastic exchange rate variation. This helps dampen the adverse effects of the financial distress on the economy.     

A macroeconomic model with asset equilibrium for an open economy

This article is concerned with the problem of the effects of monetary policy in an open economy in the long run. In order to analyze this problem under assumptions that are more suitable for long-run analysis than those of the usual IS-LM model a new model has been constructed with flexible prices, fixed exchange rates and a flexible capital stock. Within this framework it is found that the effectiveness of monetary policy crucially depends upon the degree of asset and goods arbitrage across national borders. Sufficient asset or goods arbitrage are both sufficient conditions to yield a zero effect of monetary policy except on foreign exchange reserves.