Business models among SMTEs: identifying attitudes to environmental costs and their implications for sustainable tourism

This paper examines how environmental resources and costs feature in business models of small- and medium-sized tourism enterprises (SMTEs). Several studies have pointed to the generally positive nature of the relationship between the economic and environmental performance of tourism firms. Yet, although business models act as a vector between these aspects of firm performance, they have been overlooked in sustainable tourism discourse. The paper reports findings from discussion groups of SMTE businesses in South West England during the global economic downturn. Environmental costs and cost control were afforded relatively little importance in terms of value creation; conversely, there was a strong and predictable emphasis on revenue generation. Indirect tactics emerged for dealing with guests’ environmental behaviours which reflected this prevailing commercial logic. Green credentials were routinely de-emphasized, sometimes regarded as liabilities, in a form of greenhushing. Responses were framed by reference to social media and how online reviews may negatively impact on future value capture. Conceptually, the business model emerged as an important lens for understanding how environmental resources and costs were valourized. The paper highlights the need to ensure that contemporary approaches to environmental management in SMTEs reflect the current and fast-changing conditions that frame business models.     

The coastal tourism industry in the Mediterranean: A critical review of the socio-economic and environmental pressures & impacts

Tourism is a vital economic source in the Mediterranean basin. The sun and beach tourists are of major social and economic importance for almost all Mediterranean countries. However, this industry's extensive and uncontrolled growth may negatively impact these fragile natural coastline areas. In the present study, we review and analyse the driver's forces, pressures, and impacts of the tourism sector development in the Mediterranean countries' environment and economy by using the D (Driver) P (Pressure) S (State) I (Impact) R (Responses) analytical framework. The analysis highlights the critical social and economic roles the coastal tourism industry plays while the steady and uncontrolled growth of this sector and related activities compromise these coastal countries' ecology and environmental quality. This requires the decision-makers and stakeholders' attention toward adopting new strategies and approaches toward greening the blue tourism industry to ensure sustainable economic, social and environmental growth of this industry. In this perspective, we point out the necessity to incorporate environmental issues with economic and socio-cultural needs to obtain complete and harmonized sustainable tourism indicators in the Mediterranean.     

Dynamic relationship between tourism,economic growth,and environmental quality

Abstract

In the recent era of globalisation, the tourism sector is growing rapidly and stimulates economic growth across the world, however, the inevitable environmental consequences of tourism cannot be ignored. For sustainable tourism, it is necessary to understand the interrelationship between economic growth, tourism, and environmental quality. Hence, the objective of the current research is to investigate the dynamic relationship between tourism, economic growth, and CO₂ emissions from 1995 to 2014 in the context of BRICS economies. A group of econometric tests robust to heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence is applied to achieve accurate and unbiased results. Empirical findings propose that tourism sector significantly encourages economic growth; however, tourism degrades the quality of the environment. Also, globalisation has a long-term relationship with economic growth but an insignificant relationship with CO₂ emissions. The long-term elasticities further recommend that investment stimulate economic growth and mitigate CO₂ emissions. Moreover, environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) holds in BRICS countries in its significance to tourism and globalisation. Finally, a heterogeneous panel non-causality test detects bi-directional causality between tourism receipts and CO₂ emissions. Moreover, tourism and investment in tourism Granger cause each other. Empirical findings direct towards important policy implications.     

Tourism course proposal for a social science curriculum

As the economic and environmental impacts of mass tourism grow, it becomes vital that information concerning the industry is disseminated to as wide an audience as possible. Since many of the future opinion leaders attend university, one area where a balanced assessment of tourism is required is within the social science curriculums of universities. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate some issues and challenges involved with the introduction of a tourism course during this era of fiscal restraint and accountability. It is suggested that a new course proposal should include a comprehensive definition of tourism and its component parts; that it should consider its scholarly significance and operational feasibility within the university community; and that its place within and contribution to a specific discipline be demonstrated, since it is easier to innovate within the existing university structure.     

Tourism,information technologies and sustainability: an exploratory review

ABSTRACT

Considerable attention has been paid in recent years to the fundamental changes in the global tourism system related to the emergence of information technologies (IT), and, specifically, the rise of social media. Opportunities to search travel-related information, to reserve and book, evaluate and judge; to receive travel advice and to communicate one's mobility patterns have all profoundly changed the practices of performing tourism, with concomitant repercussions for the management and marketing of businesses and destinations. This paper provides a discussion of the implications of these changes for the sustainability of the global tourism system. Based on an exploratory research design, key changes in the tourism system are identified and discussed with regard to their environmental, socio-cultural and psychological, as well as economic significance. The paper concludes that IT affects the tourism system in numerous and complex ways, with mixed outcomes for sustainability: while most changes would currently appear to be ambivalent – and some outright negative – there is considerable potential for IT to support more sustainable tourism. Yet, this would require considerable changes in the tourism system on global, national and individual business' levels, and require tourism academics to probe many new issues.     

Tourism, economic welfare and efficient pricing

A theoretical framework based on economics is provided for assessing tourism's costs and benefits. Suppose that resources utilized by tourists are owned by residents and, as marketed goods or services, are priced efficiently. Then increased tourism promotes net average (i.e., Pareto) economic gains for residents even in the face of such things as increased environmental costs and increased charges. Therefore, under these circumstances, there is no case for entry taxes or qualitative restrictions on tourism to deal with environmental issues. However, such taxes can be justified on rent-seeking grounds that are discussed in this paper.     

Domestic tourism as a development factor

Archer, Brian H., “Domestic Tourism as a Development Factor”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 1, January/March 1978, pp. 126–141. Domestic tourism brings about an intermingling of people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds and also a considerable redistribution of spending power. Although this paper concentrates mainly upon the economic effects created by the growth of domestic tourism and is illustrated by reference to some recent case studies, attention is also drawn to the favorable and unfavorable political, social, cultural, moral, environmental and conservational aspects of domestic tourism. The paper concludes by discussing some ways in which domestic tourism can provide an impetus to further economic growth in the holiday regions and also how domestic tourism may assist in solving some of the problems facing a country's international tourism.     

Tourism planning : The case for ‘market failure’

Tourism planning has been looked upon as a means of maximizing benefits from tourism development; however, there has been limited research on the accomplishments of tourism plans. This paper provides a longrun analysis of tourism planning in Pacific island destinations, using Hawaii, French Polynesia and the Cook Islands as case examples. A major conclusion of the study is that government tourism plans have little probability of influencing market forces to achieve economic success in destination areas. In view of this, future government planning efforts should be redirected to focus on issues such as the negative social and environmental impacts which are not ameliorated by market forces, leaving the private sector to assume the planning and financial risks of developing specific tourist areas. In order to achieve this, government tourism organizations may have to be restructured from economic development and/or marketing organizations to incorporate broad social responsibilities.     

Modeling community support for a proposed integrated resort project

In recent years Mauritius has experienced a rapid increase in integrated resort developments, which have been intended to secure income from new tourism segments and to boost the local economy. Using data on the responses of residents of Le Morne, Mauritius, to a proposal to construct an integrated resort, this study develops and tests a model of community support for the proposed development. The structural model indicates that residents' satisfaction with their own community, their utilization of the resource base, their perceptions of the state of the local economy and their environmental attitudes are antecedents of their views about the costs and benefits of the project. Opinions about the benefits and costs of the project were also found to determine the level of community support. All factors in the model were found to be determinants of the perceived costs and benefits of the project, except for residents' perceptions of the impact of the development on their utilization of the resource base. The theoretical and managerial implications of the study are discussed. The most notable contribution of the study is its findings on the influence of residents' satisfaction with community services on their attitudes and support for tourism development.     

Forecasting leisure and tourism - scenario projections for 2000–2010

This article considers likely future trends in leisure time and tourism. The economic climate over the next 20 years is usually predicted to produce an increase in tourism. However, there are clearly discernible limits to the growth of tourist demand in the industrialized countries, due to changing economic conditions, modified consumer behaviour and new technologies. Increasing leisure time will be allocated to other uses besides tourism. The composition of the tourist population will alter, with increasing proportions of, eg senior citizens. There will be greater emphasis on individual/self-determined holidays, and on educational and recreational pursuits. Increasing environmental awareness will effect planning policies and tourist demand. An interdisciplinary, long-term approach to tourism planning is recommended.     

中国旅游经济增长与碳排放的耦合关系研究

厘清旅游经济增长与能源消费及CO2排放之间的关系对于实现增长前提下的低碳旅游发展意义重大。文章采用"自下而上"法,估算了1991~2010年中国旅游业的CO2排放量,并运用脱钩理论、ADF单位根检验、协整分析以及Granger因果关系检验,辨识和分析了中国旅游经济增长与碳排放之间的耦合关系。实证研究结果表明,在研究样本区间内,中国旅游经济增长与CO2排放量除2003年为未脱钩以外,其余年份均处于相对脱钩状态;旅游经济增长与碳排放之间存在长期的协整关系;旅游经济增长构成CO2排放的Granger原因不显著,而CO2排放构成旅游经济增长的Granger原因较为显著,即存在从CO2排放到旅游经济增长的单向Granger因果关系。基于上述结论,提出相关政策建议。     

要素结构变动、制度环境与旅游经济高质量发展

文章在对旅游经济发展质量的内涵构成、影响因素进行文献梳理的基础上,从行动资源与保障机制两个视角构建了旅游经济高质量发展的行动逻辑框架,并对要素结构变动、制度环境及二者交互作用促进旅游经济高质量发展的机理进行了分析。基于效率、结构和环境3个维度构建并测算了旅游经济发展质量指标,运用2003-2016年省际面板数据对理论分析进行了实证检验。结果表明:(1)要素结构变动、制度环境分别是旅游经济发展质量提升的行动资源、保障机制;(2)代表要素结构变动的资本劳动投入比对中、东部地区旅游经济发展质量的正向作用显著,对西部地区的作用不显著,而景区禀赋对中、西部地区的作用显著,对东部地区作用不显著;(3)制度环境对旅游经济发展质量总体上具有正向促进作用,对中、东部地区作用显著,对西部地区的作用尚不显著;(4)制度环境能够调节要素结构变动的作用方向及程度,二者交互形成集成动力对各地区旅游经济发展质量均产生正向作用。针对上述结论,文章从基于供给侧结构性改革推动要素结构升级、制度创新等视角提出了促进旅游经济高质量发展的相关建议。     

Is sustainable tourism an obstacle to the economic performance of the tourism industry? Evidence from an international empirical study

Sustainability has become an important strategic objective for tourism destinations worldwide. All analytical tourism competitiveness models make direct or indirect positive references to sustainability. It is accepted that sustainable tourism can reduce resource costs and help create market differentiation. Nevertheless, it has traditionally been considered that, short term, sustainability measures can reduce profitability and compromise competitiveness. Debates on the progress, implications, and practicality of sustainable tourism remain open. The relationship between economic sustainability, and environmental and sociocultural sustainability, is a central but largely unresearched area for tourism scholars, especially at the macro level. This study explores that difficult but essential area, using the World Economic Forum's empirical evidence from 128 countries, backed by the economic data search tool of the World Travel & Tourism Council. It demonstrates that progress in tourism sustainability does not affect a country's main economic tourism indicators in the short term, and does not constrain profitability and competitiveness. It also finds that sustainable tourism is not a luxury that only rich countries can afford, nor should it prevent development and perpetuate poverty in developing countries. An effective marketing and communication program about sustainable tourism is, however, found to be essential for economic success.     

More than an “industry”: The forgotten power of tourism as a social force

This paper argues that in the current neo-liberal era, the discourse of tourism as an “industry” has overshadowed other conceptualisations of the tourism phenomenon. An argument is developed that this discourse serves the needs and agendas of leaders in the tourism business sector. However, the author desires to revive an earlier understanding of tourism that predates the neoliberal era. Tourism is in fact a powerful social force that can achieve many important ends when its capacities are unfettered from the market fundamentalism of neoliberalism and instead are harnessed to meet human development imperatives and the wider public good. Examining the human rights aspects of tourism, investigating phenomena such as “social tourism”, exploring a few “non-western” perspectives of tourism and outlining some of the tantalising promise that tourism holds, this paper attempts to revive and reinforce a wider vision of tourism's role in societies and the global community. It is argued that it is critical for tourism academics, planners and leaders to support such a vision if tourism is to avoid facing increasing opposition and criticism in a likely future of insecurity and scarcity.     

The Application of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in Sustainable Tourism Planning: A Review

Decision-making in tourism development and planning is becoming increasingly complex as organisations and communities have to come to terms with the competing economic, social and environmental demands of sustainable development. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can be regarded as providing a tool box of techniques and technologies of wide applicability to the achievement of sustainable tourism development. Spatial (environmental) data can be used to explore conflicts, examine impacts and assist decision-making. Impact assessment and simulation are increasingly important in tourism development, and GIS can play a role in auditing environmental conditions, examining the suitability of locations for proposed developments, identifying conflicting interests and modelling relationships. Systematic evaluation of environmental impact is often hindered by information deficiencies but also tools for data integration, manipulation, visualisation and analysis. GIS seems particularly suited to this task. This paper examines the progress tourism related organisations are making towards the utilisation of GIS and its integration with the principles of sustainable development in the UK.     

旅游发展、空间溢出与经济增长——来自中国的经验证据

针对传统经验研究文献忽视空间相关性而导致的研究结论偏颇问题,文章采用经济学较为前沿的空间面板计量方法,利用中国30个省份1999~2009年面板数据,实证检验了旅游发展与经济增长之间的影响关系。研究结果表明:旅游发展呈现出明显的空间自相关性,具有显著空间集聚特征,大部分省份处于高-高和低-低类型区;旅游发展对经济增长具有显著正向促进作用,传统面板回归模型没有考虑空间相关性,高估了这一作用;旅游发展对经济增长存在显著空间溢出效应,并具有较强的稳健性。     

Buen Vivir: Degrowing extractivism and growing wellbeing through tourism

Abstract

Buen Vivir (BV) is a holistic vision for social and environmental wellbeing, which includes alternative economic activities to the neoliberal growth economy. This article looks at how tourism initiatives under a BV approach can lead to degrowth by drawing on a case study of how BV is put into practice through tourism in the Cotacachi County in Ecuador. We argue that by degrowing socially and environmentally damaging extractive sectors and growing alternative economic activities like community-based tourism, a BV approach could increase social and environmental wellbeing. We refer to LaTouche’s notion of degrowth as a matrix of multiple alternatives that will reopen the space for human creativity. This complements the notion of BV as a plural approach, and in turn works to decolonise the parameters of how we might understand degrowth. In the case of Cotacachi, the vision for tourism is based on the needs of the community, rather than to satisfy a Eurocentric ideal of development supported by a policy of extractivism. BV is key to how this community conceptualises the potentialities of tourism because it considers the wellbeing of the people and the environment. In this case, degrowth is a consequence of BV, rather than the objective.     

Foreign tourism in Greece: An economic analysis

Foreign exchange earnings are vital for developmental efforts, particularly in the industrial sector. However, Greece's visible exports alone do not generate sufficient income for such purposes, thus providing a strong justification for blending tourism into the country's general economic development strategy. From a development perspective, foreign exchange earnings are only one aspect of the total economic picture; eg the development of an export industry has varying repercussions on income, employment and other economic activity. The extent of these effects will vary according to the linkages between industrial sectors. This article assesses the importance of tourism to the Greek economy in terms of its impact on foreign exchange earnings and the balance of payments. Tourism's contribution to gross domestic product, employment and other economic activity is also examined.     

Estimating the tourism induced environmental Kuznets curve in France

Abstract

France has retained its position as the world’s favourite tourism destination. Accounting for around 83 million visitors and 4.2% of the total employment, the tourism sector in France contributes to nearly 9% of the total GDP. However, as reported by the World Tourism Organization, road and air travel related to tourism activities account for approximately 10% of the total CO₂ emissions in the atmosphere, thereby contributing to severe air pollution. Thus, initiatives are necessary to prevent environmental damage that could have a corresponding detrimental effect on the tourism industry itself and slow down the country’s economic growth. This study utilises a vector error correction model (VECM) to investigate the relationship between polluting emissions, GDP levels, and tourism flows in France to test the validity of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis for the period 1995–2014. Additionally, based on a joint analysis of long-run parameters and causality links, appropriate policy strategies are proposed to promote robust and sustainable long-run economic growth.     

VOLUNTEER TOURISM—“INVOLVE ME AND I WILL LEARN”?

Voluntourism or volunteer tourism is increasingly available and popular amongst everyday tourists in different parts of the world. Despite its seeming virtue and it often being positioned as a form of “justice” or “goodwill” tourism, critics in the public media have begun to question and criticize the effectiveness or “real” value of volunteer tourism. However, academic work has not yet critiqued volunteer tourism in the same manner. This paper thus provides a critical and timely review of volunteer tourism, using interviews and participant observation with 11 respondents on a volunteer tourism trip to South Africa. This paper reviews volunteer tourists’ motivations (what prompted their participation); performances of the “self” in volunteer tourism; and the tensions and paradoxes surrounding volunteer tourism.