Stakeholder planning of the institutionalization of the volunteer farmer-trainer approach in dairy producer organizations in Kenya: key steps and supporting mechanisms*

The effectiveness of community-based extension approaches has been widely documented, however their sustainability remains weak. Institutionalization has been proposed as a way of achieving sustainability. This paper shares experiences of the learning and planning phase of the institutionalization of the volunteer farmer-trainer (VFT) approach in three dairy producer organizations (POs) in Kenya. The paper builds a detailed understanding of the key steps and social processes involved and the wider lessons that might be learned regarding institutionalization in the context of local institutions such POs. We draw on data from key informant interviews, focus groups discussions and workshops. The first phase of the process which spanned one year involved engagements with stakeholders at different levels; from VFTs, dairy cooperative management, government extension and local NGOs. The process involved awareness creation, joint learning at the individual, group and organization level, a strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats (SWOT) analysis of producer organizations and identifying opportunities for harnessing resources for support functions. We highlight the important supporting social and institutional processes that are required for this to happen. These include getting acceptance and support from key stakeholders, developing a shared understanding, stakeholder ownership of the process, commitment from top leadership of POs and institutional structures to support the process. For the process to be actualized, we discuss mechanisms that need to be put in place.     

Become Independent! The Paradoxical Constraints of France's “Auto‐Entrepreneur” Regime

The Law on Economic Modernization of August 4, 2008, introduced a new form of individual entrepreneur, the “auto‐entrepreneur,” the goal being to enhance the competitiveness of the French economy by promoting entrepreneurial spirit. This paper proposes to discuss the “auto‐entrepreneur” model with reference to the fundamentals of the theory of the firm and the legal variants of the “auto‐entrepreneur.” The argument will be structured around the criterion of independence, and its various interpretations, which will be used to put the auto‐entrepreneur model to the test. Three forms of autonomy are given precedence: productive, concerning the availability of sufficient financing and material to provide professional services; managerial, which measures the ability to assume the risks inherent to business, regarding both interested and third parties; and financial, or the chances of earning enough money to subsist upon. The result, highlighted in the conclusion to this paper, is that the “auto‐entrepreneur” regime is contrary to every referenced approach to the firm. This business model appears best adapted as a means of supplementing income from another, unrelated activity or in retirement.     

Towards right-shoring: a framework for off-and re-shoring decision making

Location decisions are crucial for manufacturing plants. While current research mainly stresses the cost considerations of location decisions, this research focusses on a more comprehensive decision-making process. Based on analyzing the motivations for off-and re-shoring, we present a decision-making framework which will help companies to ‘right-shore’. Through a multiple case study approach in the aeronautics industry, an industry known for its technical complexity and innovative nature, we will validate and broaden our initial decision-making framework based on literature. While analyzing this framework, it became apparent that the main motivation for offshoring in the aeronautic industry is far from being restricted to cost-cutting considerations. More specific, companies in this industry are willing to develop sustainable commercial partnerships in emerging countries to benefit from new capacities and resources. In the same vein, re-shoring decisions are grounded on long-term perspectives and are carefully balanced. While providing a comprehensive framework for offshoring and re-shoring decisions, our framework enables companies to make better informed decisions for choosing the right location for their plants.     

Macro-accounting and Micro-accounting Relationships in France

This paper discusses the interaction between national accounting and micro-accounting processes and highlights a very specific French characteristic in terms of accounting standardisation: the predominant role played by the State in the standardisation process. This may be explained by the French State's tradition of centralisation, dating back to the Napoleonic period and still very much present. Nonetheless, this high degree of centralisation and co-ordination of the accounting standardisation processes has not resulted in a uniform accounting procedure for all sectors of activity. However, these differences may become gradually less marked, as the main short-term objective of a newly-reorganised body responsible for co-ordinating accounting standards is to provide for a coherent body of doctrine that takes into account the specific characteristics of all the different sectors.     

United States and India: two nuclear states with legislation that truly holds responsible parties liable in case of a nuclear accident

Nuclear law tends to be an ‘exception’ to ordinary tort law in many ways. This is due to its early military roots and initial fears of catastrophe containment. Yet, this ‘exception’ is not justified anymore. Producing energy in nuclear power plants is business-as-usual nowadays and is insured by multinational corporations like Swiss Re, Generali, Münich Re, AXA, etc. In this article, a key exception provided by nuclear law will be explained: how suppliers and designers of defective reactors escape any responsibility in case of a nuclear accident. Two nuclear states have adopted laws that deviate from this exception: the USA and India. Indeed, in both the USA and India, suppliers and designers of defective reactors can be held liable in case of a nuclear accident. In this author’s opinion, the nuclear liability package provided for in the laws of the USA and India is a gateway to justice in case of a nuclear accident and should be an example for the rest of the world. Surprisingly, though, both countries are in disagreement on nuclear law issues. Explanations in this article will be given in simple terms, in an attempt to demystify legal issues surrounding nuclear energy. Nuclear energy should not be an exception, and Indian and US laws have understood that.     

French revolution and German circumspection: reforming budgeting and accounting in national governments

In France in 2001, a revolutionary budgeting and accounting reform of the central government was begun and, in 2006, introduced—it is now almost complete. In 2006, the German federal government began a similarly revolutionary budgeting and accounting reform, but abandoned it in 2010. We identify the similarities in technique between the two countries' reforms but also significant differences. The authors conclude that, notwithstanding the importance of accrual accounting in the French revolution and in the abortive German revolution, the resilience of the traditional budgetary accounting systems is striking.     

Volunteer farmer-trainer motivations in East Africa: practical implications for enhancing farmer-to-farmer extension

Farmer-to-farmer extension (FFE) has received considerable interest in developing countries due to a decline in government extension services. There are, however, questions as to how FFE can be improved to enhance effectiveness and sustainability of the approach. One area that may hold the key is to understand volunteer farmer-trainer (VFT) motivations. Informal and formal interviews were held with VFTs in a smallholder dairy development project in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda. Data were collected on the reasons why VFTs became trainers and why they continue to train. Findings of the study showed that VFTs were motivated by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors are not static; they change over time. Gaining knowledge and skills as well as altruism were found to be the most important motivating factors for becoming trainers in the three countries. However, a few years after becoming trainers, income earned from selling inputs and specialized services associated with training was an important motivating factor to VFTs in Kenya. In Uganda gaining knowledge and skills remained the most important whereas in Rwanda, a new motivation, increased demand for training, was the most important reason for continuing to train. These findings point to the fact that the general reasons that motivate VFTs irrespective of context are similar; however, the importance attached to motivations is context specific. These motivations can provide insights into which incentives can be enhanced to improve effectiveness and sustainability of FFE.     

The European sectoral social dialogue: questions of representation and membership

In the debates on the European social dialogue as a potential level of supranational industrial relations, the key questions of representations and mandates are often neglected. To what extent can the European sectoral social dialogue act for national constituencies across 27 Member States in the perspective of collective action by European associations? This article addresses this question by the means of three dimensions: the representation of heterogeneous members, the various degrees of national players' commitment in the European committees and finally, the definition of a common agenda among members.