FOOD,TECHNOLOGY AND EMPLOYMENT: THE FARM-LEVEL POST-HARVEST SYSTEM IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The prevention of food loss in the farm-level post-harvest system has become an objective of food policy in many developing countries. This objective is founded on the allegations that food losses are high, that technology is available to prevent or reduce these losses and that, as a consequence, hungry people will be less hungry. This paper first reviews the development of this policy objective. It then goes on to argue that this formulation of post-harvest policy is inaccurate and frequently misleading. Evidence on the levels of food loss under traditional practices, and on the costs and benefits of technical change, show that at farm level cost reduction is the chief influence on technological choice; from a social perspective, employment and hence income distribution considerations are often the decisive factor in evaluating new techniques.     

反食物浪费政策的落地：国际经验与本土实践

[目的]粮食安全战略是国家安全战略的重要组成部分,粮食浪费是危害我国粮食安全的重要因素,为保障粮食安全,减少粮食浪费尤为重要。[方法]文章从法律法规、政策措施、运行机制三方面系统梳理了美国和法国减少食物浪费的经验做法。[结果]在法律法规方面,美国的法律法规强调引导激励作用;法国的法律法规双管齐下,兼顾引导激励和处罚遏制。在政策措施方面,美国构建了差异化食物回收等级体系、通过投资教育等方式助力反食物浪费;法国更注重发挥社会各界的力量,引导社会力量进行自我管理和反食物浪费。在运行机制方面,美国和法国均通过多部门协作、多领域减少食物浪费,但在非政府组织的参与程度上,美国非政府组织的参与程度明显高于法国。[结论]参考他国经验,基于本国国情,建议：制定法律政策的实施细则,兼顾引导激励和处罚遏制;建立多层次的食物回收等级体系,提升食物回收再利用的效率;加强各部门间的协作,在全过程形成反食物浪费的合力;号召社会各界踊跃参与,将反食物浪费化为全社会的自觉行动。     

新形势下高标准农田建设管理政策存在的问题及建议

目的 高标准农田建设是“藏粮于地，藏粮于技”的重要措施，在粮食安全问题重要性凸显的背景下，加强高标准农田建设意义非凡。通过分析机构改革后农田建设管理政策在实施过程中存在的问题及相应措施，将为政策完善提供方向和依据。方法 文章选取4个粮食主产省的8个粮食大县进行调研，组织省、市、县各级农田建设管理部门人员、新型经营主体等，采用半结构性方式进行访谈，研究分析农田建设政策落实及项目实施中存在的问题。结果 农田建设在提高粮食产能、促进农业机械化、增加农民收入、新增耕地指标和改善农田生态环境方面发挥了成效，但机构改革后的农田政策执行中还存在机制不全、体制不顺的问题，在组织协调、资金管理、项目内容管理和制度标准方面都有体现。问题根源主要来自政府部门及相关主体存在的“路径依赖”“重管理、轻服务”“一刀切”等倾向。结论 需从体制机制上完善农田建设管理政策，让高标准农田项目建设更高效，为保障粮食安全发挥更大作用。     

粮食生产、生态保护与宏观调控政策

[目的]长期以来,粮食生产与生态保护一直是一对矛盾综合体,为了实现粮食安全目标,人们往往忽略对于生态的保护,通过对二者之间的相互影响机理的分析,提出更好的宏观调控政策。[方法]采用因果分析法对粮食安全框架下的粮食生产和生态保护的演进关系、影响形式和内容进行了研究,最终给出了二者协调发展的粮食宏观调控政策设计对策。[结果]首先,不合理粮食生产活动对生态环境造成的严重破坏,主要体现在水土流失、水资源浪费、化学物质的残留和生态环境的污染;其次,被破坏的生态环境反过来影响了粮食生产的数量和质量,进而对粮食安全产生了威胁。[结论]为了保证粮食安全的目标,长期牺牲生态环境的做法已经带来了严重的后果,这种后果不仅仅表现为当前的生态失衡,更严重威胁了未来的粮食安全。因此,要充分发挥粮食宏观调控政策的作用,加强生态功能设计,具体可从建立农业自然资源保护和有效利用的制度机制、加强政府生态农业的主导型地位及投入水平、以技术进步支撑保护农业生态和粮食安全和以法律手段规范保证相应措施的顺利实施4个方面进行设计和完善。     

日本与欧美农业环境支持政策对中国的启示

农业政策中与环境相关的支付政策越来越多。发达国家将WTO绿箱政策、农业直接支付政策与农业环境支持政策结合起来,这样既可以从根本上解决农业生产所带来的安全问题,也可以加深消费者对相关政策的理解与支持,同时从产业链的上游解决食品安全及农业的可持续发展问题。欧盟的Greening政策和日本实施的农业直接支付政策均以农户遵守农药化肥及农业废弃物处理的相关规范为前提,通过合理使用肥料及各种防治措施从不同程度上达到农业可持续发展、农业的多功能性及降低温室气体排放的目的,并由此获取政府的支持。文章通过对发达国家,特别是与中国农业形态类似的日本农业环境政策取向的分析及与欧美相关政策比较分析,认为中国首先应该完善循环农业的相关法律法规和标准,加强对农民的培训以及明确其应遵守的基本义务,对采取环境友好型农业生产方式的农民给予支持。     

Market power and rents in global supply chains

Market power and competition policy in food supply chains has emerged as an important economic issue in economics, and a highly sensitive item on the policy agenda. Consolidation is taking place in the food industry, both in high‐income countries and in emerging economies, but the impact of concentration in global food chains on efficiency and rent distribution is more nuanced and complex than often claimed. We review the literature and extend it by developing a model which explicitly takes into account market imperfections and contract enforcement problems in supply chains. Increased competition benefits farms by improving contract conditions, but contract enforcement becomes more complicated.     

The top 100 questions of importance to the future of global agriculture

Despite a significant growth in food production over the past half-century, one of the most important challenges facing society today is how to feed an expected population of some nine billion by the middle of the 20th century. To meet the expected demand for food without significant increases in prices, it has been estimated that we need to produce 70–100 per cent more food, in light of the growing impacts of climate change, concerns over energy security, regional dietary shifts and the Millennium Development target of halving world poverty and hunger by 2015. The goal for the agricultural sector is no longer simply to maximize productivity, but to optimize across a far more complex landscape of production, rural development, environmental, social justice and food consumption outcomes. However, there remain significant challenges to developing national and international policies that support the wide emergence of more sustainable forms of land use and efficient agricultural production. The lack of information flow between scientists, practitioners and policy makers is known to exacerbate the difficulties, despite increased emphasis upon evidence-based policy. In this paper, we seek to improve dialogue and understanding between agricultural research and policy by identifying the 100 most important questions for global agriculture. These have been compiled using a horizon-scanning approach with leading experts and representatives of major agricultural organizations worldwide. The aim is to use sound scientific evidence to inform decision making and guide policy makers in the future direction of agricultural research priorities and policy support. If addressed, we anticipate that these questions will have a significant impact on global agricultural practices worldwide, while improving the synergy between agricultural policy, practice and research. This research forms part of the UK Government's Foresight Global Food and Farming Futures project.     

TRADE REFORM AND THE PROSPECTS FOR PROCESSED FOOD EXPORTS FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

This paper draws attention to the relative neglect of the consequences of barriers to processed food exports from developing countries in the literature examining the effects on these countries of agricultural trade liberalisation. These barriers are of three kinds: trade policy barriers; differing health, food safety and environmental standards; and, barriers arising from the evolving market structure in food processing and distribution in developed country markets. The paper discusses the likely significance of the gains to developing countries from reduction of tariffs on processed food commodities and examines the consequences of the EU single market programme for developing country food exports.     

我国耕地保护政策研究：基于背景、效果与未来趋势

［目的］我国耕地保护政策对保护耕地、保障粮食安全具有重要意义。研究我国耕地保护政策出台的背景及前后关系、相同政策在不同区域内的执行效果差异,能够为更针对性地提出政策建议提供参考。［方法］主要运用了资料分析和定性描述的方法,首先按照耕地保护政策内涵划分为5个阶段,其次从时间、空间两个尺度,判断了耕地保护政策的数量、质量保护效果差异,最后提出了未来政策出台的方向和趋势。［结果］时间尺度上：1986年、1997年、2004年出台的政策对耕地数量保护的成效明显; 2014—2016年耕地质量保护效果略优于2009—2014年; 目前数量保护成效较好,但质量保护远未达到要求。空间尺度上：耕地数量保护效果西部地区最好,东北地区次之,中部地区优于东部地区; 耕地质量保护效果中部地区最佳,东北地区次之,东部地区优于西部地区。［结论］未来政策可向规范补充耕地全国统筹、完善耕地质量保护法律体系、调动农户保护耕地积极性等方向发展。     

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION VARIABILITY: POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

This paper examines whether there is increased inter-year instability in food consumption at the national level, and to what extent this is attributable to increased instability of food production in the wake of adoption of modern agricultural technology. The data analysed indicates that increased production instability does translate into increased fluctuations in consumption. Nevertheless, year-to-year consumption variability among the sample of 38 countries has declined during the past 25 years. This is attributed to improved stocking operations and trade practices which accompany economic growth. Nevertheless, food insecurity, as measured in terms of fluctuations around trend levels of consumption, does remain a problem, especially among the poor. Therefore, policy options to reduce consumption instability are outlined.     

华北地区农户对粮食政策的评价及生产粮食意愿分析

该文在问卷调查的基础上,分析了我国华北地区粮食主产区农户对国家粮食政策的评价和生产粮食的意愿及原因等问题。结果表明,农户对国家"两减免,三补贴"政策的落实情况比较满意,从事粮食生产的农户获得国家粮食政策优惠最多的是"直接补贴";农户对国家粮食政策期望按照重要性排序是:"提高最低收购价">"加大粮食直补">"加大农田基础设施建设">"加大科技投入与推广"。农户种植粮食作物的主要原因是"保证口粮、有粮吃";愿意多种粮食的农户占56.5%,还有32.2%的农户不愿意多种粮食。农户愿意多种粮食的原因主要是当前的粮食及农业政策不错,其次是多种粮食能够增加农户经济收入;农户不愿意多种粮食主要是缘于成本效益较低、增产幅度小以及农户基本口粮足够。     

Role of international politics on agri‐food trade: Evidence from US–Canada bilateral relations

A well‐functioning trade relationship between Canada and the United States is crucial to the economic vitality of the Canadian agri‐food industry. However, agri‐food trade is more susceptible than other sectors to political interventions. The Trump presidency has strained Canada–US relations and his trade policy actions have significantly increased trade restrictions and trade policy uncertainty and undermined the rules‐based global trading system. We examine the pattern of agri‐food trade between the two countries and find that the upward trajectory of bilateral agri‐food trade ended in 2013. Although this flatlining predates the Trump administration, we show that Trump increased trade policy uncertainty starting in 2017 and likely impacted further expansion of trade. We examine what might change under the Biden presidency and argue that the new administration is likely to restore strong relationships with allies and work to rebuild important international institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). Although protectionist forces will continue to impact bilateral agri‐food trade, we expect closer political ties between a Biden administration and the Canadian Prime Minister. This should have a positive effect on the Canadian agri‐food industry by reducing trade uncertainties, thereby increasing agri‐food trade between Canada and the United States.     

市场化改革前后中国粮食生产和价格波动比较研究

该文通过比较市场化改革前后中国粮食生产和价格波动的差异后发现,改革后粮食生产的稳定性得到提高,但粮食价格波动更加剧烈,产量对价格变化的反应和价格对产量变化的反应都更加敏感。原因在于:市场化改革后,市场在资源配置中的基础作用日益得到加强,粮食流通对其生产的促进作用日益明显,但价格因素在市场中被放大了。所以,应进一步深化粮食购销市场化改革,建立以期货市场为先导的粮食市场体系和现期货市场相结合的宏观调控机制。     

中国食物供求分析及预测：基于贸易历史、国际比较和模型模拟分析的视角

研究分别从贸易历史、国际比较和模型模拟的视角对中国未来食物供求平衡状况进行了展望和模拟分析。(1)贸易历史的角度的经验结果显示,中国食物贸易净进口呈扩大态势;(2)中国大陆与日本、韩国及中国台湾地区的国际比较结果表明,中国未来粮食净进口可能会进一步扩大,尤其是对蛋白质来源食物需求可能会快速扩张;(3)基于中国食物供求局部均衡模型的模拟分析结果显示,中国谷物和油料作物供求平衡的缺口将不断扩大,主要谷物和油料作物的自给率将不断下降,同时,中国采取的玉米产业需求抑制政策对中国粮食供求平衡具有深远影响。综合以上不同视角的结果可以看出,要根本解决中国食物供求平衡问题,有必要建立食物安全与其他安全的综合安全观,实现4个方面的战略转变。即:第一,从重视确保数量向重视确保国内外资源战略转变,如签订粮食供给的政府间协议。第二,从重视总体粮食安全向重视主食安全、区域安全、运输安全(或航道安全)、流通和分配渠道安全、不同收入群体家庭食物安全转变。第三,从重视单一的食物安全向产业安全和质量安全转变。第四,从重视本国食物安全向全球视角转变。     

A continuing evolution in U.S. agricultural and food policy - The 1990 Act

This paper reports the results of a study of the economic content and the decision-making process of the recently adopted U.S. 1990 agricultural and food policy. It is the most comprehensive policy of its type. It represents the broadest participation of private individuals and interests groups, and will affect the economy of not only the United States, but also the ***economies of trading countries around the world. The study examines the economic conditions leading up to the policy, a theoretical foundation of public policy determinants, the role of economic analysis in that policy development, the provisions of the Act compared with the previous policy, and its extensive economic implications. Results of the study support features of a conceptual framework for economic policy of a participatory government. The study also reveals the unique policy process of the United States and the provisions of its price and income policy for the food and agricultural sector. Finally, this article identifies the interrelations between the 1990 policy and on-going GATT negotiations, the emerging importance of environmental and food quality issues in agricultural and food policy, and sources for further study of this Act.     

Policies Supporting Organic Food and Farming in the EU: Assessment and Development by Stakeholders in 11 European Countries

There is no single ‘best way’ of policy development. Bottom-up approaches to policy design and a broad debate among stakeholders facilitate policy learning and innovation. A novel approach of a bottom-up policy design process involving stakeholders is introduced. The first results obtained by implementing this methodology are presented. The outcomes of a large international effort for a development of policies for organic food and farming, which took place in Maj 2004 in Europe, are analyzed: the synthesized results from 11 European countries (AT, CH, CZ, DE, DK, EE, GB, HU, IT, PL, SI) on the current situation of policies related to the organic food market in Europe are highlighted and policy recommendations for the development of the organic food and farming sector are formulated. Specifically, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of policies related to the organic food market are identified and policy instruments used to address these aspects are developed.     

城镇化与粮食生产效率关系的VAR模型分析

目的:中国粮食生产实现了"十二连增",我国城镇化率也在持续提升并已在2011年突破了50%,然而在两者不断增长的背后却隐含着复杂的相互影响关系,文章利用我国1991~2014年城镇化率和主要粮食单位面积产量的时间序列数据,研究两者之间的关系。方法:通过变量间的多项检验后,构建了VAR模型,并对城镇化和粮食生产效率之间的关系进行了协整分析、脉冲响应分析和方差分解分析等。分析结果认为:城镇化和粮食生产效率两者之间存在长期稳定的均衡关系。其中,城镇化对粮食生产效率有显著的正向影响,且该影响作用随着时间的增加效果减缓;粮食生产效率对城镇化的影响作用呈现先负后正的波动状态。结论:结合我国实际政策背景和理论环境进行了进一步深入剖析,造成该结果的深层原因主要是耕地面积、农业劳动力、户籍制度、农业经营规模、先进科学技术等要素,最后分别从城镇、农业和政府3个视角提出了相关的对策建议。     

中国粮食生产波动：特征、成因及启示

[目的]粮食生产波动的本质是粮食生产发展变化规律问题,分析中国粮食生产波动的基本特征和成因,有利于降低粮食生产波动带来的不利影响,对于稳定粮食生产,保障国家粮食安全具有重要意义。[方法]采用H-P滤波分析方法对1978—2017年中国粮食生产的长期和短期波动及其成因进行分析。[结果]粮食总产波动对单产波动最敏感,对三大作物中的水稻波动最敏感。根据波动特征,粮食总产的短期波动可分为4个阶段。制度变革、要素投入、科技进步、市场走势以及气候变化等因素对粮食面积、单产以及总产的波动具有显著影响,但不同时期粮食生产波动的主要成因有所差异。[结论]中国粮食生产面临新一轮下行压力,需要警惕国内外粮食市场异常变动;粮食生产波动与政策导向密切相关,保持政策的稳定性十分重要;粮食总产波动的波幅较大且波峰绝对值小于波谷,持续稳定增产难度较大;防范粮食生产超常波动,首先要防范水稻生产超常波动;粮食生产集中度进一步提高,区域性气象灾害带来的风险越来越大。     

Market intermediaries,storage and policy reforms

Intermediaries play a crucial role in the functioning of agricultural and food markets in developing countries through linking production, imports and storage with consumption. We analyse how competition in the intermediary sector and alternative forms of intermediaries determine the incentives for storage and market outcomes more generally. We apply this framework to the Egyptian wheat sector as an illustrative case study, a country where food security is a priority, where both forms of intermediaries co-exist and undertake storage but where issues of reforms to the role of intermediaries have been raised. Through stochastic simulation, we analyse two changes in government policy: first, the effects of changing the policy instruments with both types of intermediaries undertaking storage; second, relating to market reforms where the private sector replaces the storage function of the parastatal. These issues have wider significance for addressing the interaction between food security and a wide range of policy reforms including de-regulation of parastatals in developing countries.     

PROJECTION MODELS FOR U.K. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE*

Successful policy planning depends to a large extent on being able to predict the consequences of alternative measures. In the case of agriculture, it is important to know how the future pattern of supply and demand in this sector will be affected by government action on specific issues such as farm price support, and by expected trends in macro-economic variables such as national incomes and population. This paper illustrates the application of a model of U.K. agriculture to the projection of changes in the production and consumption of food and agriculture products between now and 1975. The demand projections show the effect of important levies, and of joining the E.E.C, on future expenditure on food, while the supply projections show how the output of a number of agricultural commodities will be affected by adjusting farm prices towards E.E.C. levels.