THE EFFECT OF THE OXIDATION REACTION OF SODIUM PERBORATE ON THE DAMAGE TO THE COTTON DURING WASHING

The purpose of this study was to explain the effect of activated sodium perborate on cotton cloth. The comparison between the damage caused by basic and activated detergent was based on practical washing tests. The washing temperatures were 60°C and 90°C. Damage to the cotton was determined with a physical (tenacity) and a chemical (fluidity) method. Damage to the cotton increased as the temperature rose. Washing with basic detergent at 60°C did the least damage to the cotton. The activated detergent at 60°C damaged the cotton more strongly, but slightly less than the basic detergent at 90°C. Damage to cotton caused by washing can be determined more rapidly and more reliably with a chemical method than with a physical one.     

Consumer laundry practices in Germany

Sustainability is a guiding principle for a responsible, future‐oriented 21st century lifestyle and this already begins in private households with the daily household tasks. Approximately 25% of an average household's electricity consumption is required to do the laundry and dishwashing – 5% alone is for washing clothes with a corresponding energy consumption of 6 billion kilowatt hours. In addition, 600 000 tonnes of detergent and 330 million cubic metres of water are used for textile care in Germany. These figures provide the rationale for the scientific study of current practices of using washing machines and for a resulting estimate of the latent energy‐saving potential in German households. In the context of the in‐home study presented here, 236 private households throughout Germany were studied with respect to their washing practices and existing knowledge about topics on the sustainable, energy‐saving use of their washing machines. Overall, across all households 2867 wash cycles were individually recorded and subsequently analysed over a 4‐week period. The results of this study show that washing machines tend to be underloaded, and therefore maximum loading of the machines could lead to a reduction of wash cycles per household. With respect to detergent dosage, it was determined that the consumer does not adjust the dosage to the textile type, load size, soil level and/or water hardness, and this can lead to under‐ or overdosing depending on prevailing conditions. Finally, the selection of the wash temperature showed a 90°C/95°C programme was only chosen in 2.3% of all recorded wash cycles, however, every fourth cycle was completed at 60°C. Therefore, adjusting the load size and detergent dosage as well as selecting the right wash temperature are key themes to be taken into account in future consumer communication about energy‐saving households.     

HOME LAUNDERING PART I. AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LAUNDERING SOILED TEXTILES

The washing performance of a popular U.K. detergent product has been evaluated at two different temperatures. The results are discussed in terms of potential energy savings which can be achieved by washing at cooler temperatures and the acceptability of the clean laundry as determined by a panel of consumers.     

Bacterial survival on fabrics laundered in cold water

The effect of detergent formulation and fabric type on bacterial survival after home laundering in cold water was investigated. Three fabrics, 65/35 polyester/cotton shirting, 100% cotton sheeting, and 100% cotton terry cloth, were inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus, laundered in cold 60 ± 5°F (16 ± 3°C) water and machine dried. Eight phosphorus-based powders and non-phosphorus detergents in both powder and liquid form were used. A control with no detergent was used. Percent reduction in bacteria after machine washing and after machine drying were determined. Of the eight detergents studied, only two effectively removed 100% of the bacteria from the cotton terry cloth after washing. These were sodium carbonate and aluminosilicate-based powders, one of which contained sodium perborate, the other included enzymes. All of the detergents used removed > 97% of bacteria from the polyester/cotton shirting and cotton sheeting fabrics. No significant cross contamination occurred with any fabric. A greater percent reduction of bacteria was obtained with the terry cloth samples after washing and tumble drying than after washing alone. The implications of the study are important for consumers who are using colder water in the laundering process. This study found that bacteria were removed more easily from the two plain weave fabrics than the looped terry cloth fabric. The effectiveness of tumble drying after cold water laundering to reduce bacteria in the terry cloth towelling was an important finding.     

Detergent residues in textiles

The purpose of this study was to determine concentrations of detergent residues in textiles washed with three types of detergents. One detergent contained phosphate. In the other two (concentrated or ecological detergents) phosphate had been replaced by zeolite, which contains silicates. The textiles were washed using two programmes for coloured materials (at 60°C). The programmes differed with regard to volume of rinse water and number of rinsings. Detergent residues in textiles were determined chemically. Zeolite particles were determined electron microscopically. The results showed that most of the detergent residues remaining in textile strips were anionic tensides. They increased in proportion to the quantity of detergent used for washing. The least residues were left by concentrated detergents. Anionic tensides are suspected of causing skin irritation, probably allergy in atopic persons. Zeolite particles may irritate skin mechanically or cause through irritation respiratory distress. Washing programmes using less rinse water than other programmes increased detergent residues by 30%. It is concluded that there is a positive linear relationship between concentration of detergent and residues in textiles, and a negative linear relationship between water volume and residues in textiles after laundering. This could be of considerable importance from a health point of view and should be evaluated before any detergent is marketed. A methodology combining different standardized methods for analysing detergent residues in textiles was developed in this study.     

Changing laundry habits in Norway

Maintenance is often the most energy‐demanding stage during clothes' life cycle. Therefore, a shift towards more sustainable washing habits has great potential to reduce the consumption of energy, water and detergent. This paper discusses the change in laundering practices during the past 10 years in Norway and suggests strategies to help consumers change their laundry habits to more sustainable ones. Quantitative information of consumers' experiences, habits and opinions concerning clothing maintenance was collected through three surveys in Norway in 2002, 2010 and 2011. The 2010 study was supplemented with qualitative in‐depth interviews of a strategic sample of households. The average washing temperature has decreased slightly during the studied time periods. Some products' washing frequencies remained the same, whereas other products such as jeans were used a few more days before washing. The cotton programme is the most used washing programme, but short programmes are gaining popularity. The laundry sorting processes vary greatly and are influenced by several factors such as washing temperature, colours, fibre type and use area. For some consumers, the use of several different sorting categories made it more difficult to collect a sufficient amount of clothing to fill the machine. They were also afraid that overfilling the machine would result in clothes that were not clean enough or had detergent residues. Detergent dosing practices are far from optimal. In 2010, although the majority of respondents only used eye measure and did not know the water hardness of their area, they still tried to vary detergent dosage based on the amount of laundry and the level of soiling. Different design for sustainable behaviour strategies could be used within detergent dosage systems, care labelling, machine programme selection (such as suggesting lower temperature and eco‐programme), machine filling grade indicators, storage systems for slightly used clothing and textile material choice.     

Clean laundry with pure conscience—A study on laundry practices among Finnish consumers

The previous study concerning laundry practices in Finland was published 16 years ago. Since that time, many pro‐environmental debates have been going on and sustainable actions have been implemented in many areas of individual lives and households. The purpose of this study is to investigate the textile laundering practices of Finnish consumers and their attitudes toward clothing care procedures. This study discusses how laundry habits could be developed into a more sustainable direction. The data for this research were gathered through an online enquiry that consisted of structured multiple‐choice questions. The data were obtained from 1,841 persons of whom 97.5% were women (n = 1,795). The data were analyzed by statistical means using the SPSS program. The data show that, despite media attention and debate about textile care procedures, there still are factors in laundering that burden the environment. From a sustainability point of view, some improvements exist when comparing to the situation 16 years ago, but washing machines still are seldom filled to their full capacity and consumers, being unaware of water hardness, administer excessive amounts of detergent. The current life situations of the household members seem to be major factors influencing laundry habits and sustainable actions. Especially, young people and families with children would benefit from information and instructions on laundry practices. Topics could contain knowledge about water hardness and proper dosing of detergent, filling the washing machine, washing temperatures, drying methods, and saving energy. Furthermore, general promotion of gender equality is important because household work and laundering is strikingly women‐performed work.     

The disinfectant action of low-temperature laundering

The purpose of this research was to investigate the disinfectant action of a heavy-duty biological detergent at low and recommended washing temperatures. The effectiveness of the process was measured in terms of the removal, transfer and destruction of bacteria from infected test pieces. The results indicate that reducing the washing temperature decreases the degree of disinfection and increases the cross-infection of any articles washed in the same load. Evidence is also obtained that shows that the presence of detergent is more important than the washing temperature for disinfectant action.     

Comparison of the washing efficiencies of a laboratory washing device (Launder‐Ometer) and of automatic household washing machines with horizontal drums

The objective of this study was to compare the cleaning result of a laboratory washing machine – Launder‐Ometer (LOM) – with that of drum‐type household washing machines, using detergent without bleaching agent, standard soiled fabrics and a colorimeter for assessing the washing result. The mechanical effect applied to the laundry in the household washers was not obtained in the LOM by increasing mechanical impact or the number of metal balls. Extended washing time did not improve removal of blood soil in the LOM, although it did increase removal of mayonnaise soil containing chlorophyll. However, in practice a washing time of 60–85 min is relatively long for a laboratory device considering the claimed time‐saving nature of these devices. None of the examined parameters affected removal of a red wine soil containing tannins, which was poor in all test combinations both in the household machines and in the laboratory washing machine. Bleaching agent is recommended for removal of this type of soil. In conclusion, conformity between washing results of the laboratory washing machine and the drum‐type household washing machines depends on the type of soiled test fabrics and other parameters in the washing process. Removal of blood soil differed most between the household machines and the LOM.     

An investigation into aspects of energy labelling with special reference to washing machines

The purpose of this research was to investigate whether the performance of domestic washing machines is adversely affected by reduced levels of energy use. This was felt particularly worthwhile because of the introduction of energy labelling for washing machines in April 1996. Results were determined by conducting tests derived from BS EN 60456. This research also aimed to discover consumer awareness of energy labelling and factors likely to influence the future purchase of washing machines. The results indicate that washing performance may be adversely affected by lower levels of energy consumption and that washing machines with a higher energy consumption achieve a better washing performance. From the survey carried out, it was discovered that the most influential factors when purchasing a washing machine were price, washing performance and brand reliability. Environmental factors such as reduced energy consumption and reduced water consumption only played a minor role in consumers' considerations. However, the research indicates that consumers' decisions may, in the future, be affected by the information displayed on energy labels.     

A comparison of the disinfectant action of a powder and liquid detergent during low-temperature laundering

The purpose of this research was to investigate the disinfectant action of a heavy-duty powder and heavy-duty liquid detergent at recommended and low washing temperatures. The effectiveness of the disinfectant action was measured in terms of removal, transfer and destruction of bacteria from infected test pieces of fabric. The investigation suggests that the temperature of the wash is important, since when reduced, less disinfectant action is observed. The results also indicate that liquid detergent is more effective at removing and destroying bacteria then powder at both temperatures used.     

Hygienic quality of cleaning cloths used in professional cleaning of private domestic homes

The objective of this laboratory study was to obtain general background information concerning professional cleaning in private domestic homes. The specific aim was to examine the effect of storage and washing of dirty cloths on their hygienic status. The effect of storage on the number of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in cleaning cloths was examined using current or potential materials for professional cleaning in private homes. The bacterial content increased in microfibre cloths in some cases during a normal working day (8 h storage), and more clearly after 16 h or 48 h of storage. Disposable fibre cloths did not promote the growth of microbes as well as microfibre cloths. The effect of detergents on the hygienic status of cleaning cloths was unclear: some cleaning agents appeared to enhance the growth of bacteria, while others did not. In many cases, organic substances, i.e. protein added to the cloths, enhanced the growth of microbes. Washing of microfibre cloths at 60°C reduced the numbers of bacteria on the cloths but did not remove them entirely. Storage of dirty cloths before washing will probably cause difficulties in the proper washing of the cloths, and thus negatively affect their capacity for hygienic results in cleaning surfaces, as well as presenting a risk to the safety of the worker. Cleaning cloths should be washed as soon as possible after use: washing after each working day, at the latest, is recommended. Furthermore, cleaning cloths should be selected for professional use to allow washing at hot temperatures. The findings of this study could be used for training in professional home cleaning. They also provide valuable information for other branches of cleaning, including consumer use in households.     

An investigation into some aspects of the efficiency of low-temperature laundering

The purpose of this research was to investigate the efficiency of laundering at low and recommended water temperatures using a heavy-duty biological detergent and a low-temperature detergent. The effectiveness of the process was measured in terms of the degree of stain/soil removal from laundered garments, and in the removal and transfer of bacteria from infected test pieces. The results indicate that with both detergents a reduction in washing efficiency occurs as the temperature of laundering is decreased, except when the difference between the recommended and low water temperature is small. Evidence was also obtained that shows that reducing wash temperatures decreases the degree of disinfection and increases the cross-infection of articles washed in the same load.     

The practical efficiency of cleaning and washing equipment used in maintenance cleaning of stairs

The aim of this study was to evaluate different types of cleaning and washing equipment for maintenance cleaning of stairs by means of practical experiments and by value analysis. The following evaluation criteria were used in the study: suitability, lightness, ease of cleaning, ease of handling, good working position, suitability for the removal of sand and fine dirt, working speed, strain at work, resultant cleanliness and suitability for tasks other than floor cleaning.     

Manual dishwashing process – a pre‐assigned behaviour?

Global studies have observed many techniques of manual dishwashing causing different levels of performance and using quite different amounts of water, energy, time and detergent. It is not known, however, if these techniques are pre‐assigned to a person and persist when dishes are washed under different conditions, or are adapted to the specific type of dish‐cleaning process. Here we explored this question in a study with 40 test subjects selected equally from Germany and East European countries by asking them to wash two place settings of dishes with different amounts of soil three times. The results showed that the test subjects did not adapt their washing‐up behaviour to the amount of soil. In general, no significant differences were found in the water, energy and detergent consumption for all test subjects. Only the time used by the German test subjects to wash the fully soiled dishes was significantly longer compared with the dishes with only a quarter the quantity of soil, and no significant difference was observed for all other parts. The only significant difference found between the level of soiling of the dishes was the cleaning result achieved: The less soiled the dishes were, the better the final cleaning result was, and this related to all test subjects. This lends support to the proposition that the consumers did not adapt their washing‐up behaviour to the specific circumstances of the dishwashing job to be done but retained some pre‐assigned behaviour.     

HOME LAUNDERING PART II. A LABORATORY EVALUATION OF THE WASHING PERFORMANCE OF FOUR DETERGENT PRODUCTS AT 40°C

A detailed comparison of the washing performance of four detergent products is discussed. The results of experiments using stained tea and terry towels and fabrics having standard stains, clearly indicate that the performance of liquid home laundering formulations commercially available in the U.K. and France does not compare favourably with the results obtained from perborate-containing powder products.     

家用洗衣机能效标准探讨

对比分析了垂直轴洗衣机和水平轴洗衣机的洗衣性能和节能节水性能,讨论了美国、欧洲和中国的洗衣机性能和能效标准,并提出了相应的标准优化建议。     

PRACTICAL USE OF ENERGY IN THE HOME

This paper is based on evidence submitted to the Watt Committee on Energy by members of the Association of Home Economists working in relevant fuel and appliance industries and in consumer advice. The paper considers the evidence available about practical energy use in the home and its relation to energy saving. The energy management of different categories of domestic equipment is considered together with the concept of energy labelling. The educational aspects are considered and recommendations are made.     

THE EFFECT OF DETERGENT TYPE AND LAUNDERING TEMPERATURE ON THE SOIL REMOVAL AND SOIL REDEPOSITION PERFORMANCE OF COTTON AND P/C BLENDS WITH AND WITHOUT DURABLE PRESS FINISH

Three soiled test cloths of cotton and 65/35% Dacron/cotton blends with and without durable press finish were subjected to twenty-five repeated launderings in Launder-Ometer to determine the effect of fabric type, wash temperature, and laundering interval on the soil removal and soil redeposition performance. The reflectance of the test fabrics as measured by a Hunter Lab D-40 reflectometer and the amount of soil removed and redeposited was computed in reflectance unit (RU) expressing the difference in reflectance of the test samples before and after washing. Soil removal and redeposition performances were significantly influenced by fabric type, detergent type, and laundering interval. Duncan's multiple range test indicated that Dacron/cotton blends with and without durable press finish retained and redeposited significantly less soil than cotton. Powder detergents cleaned test fabrics better than liquid detergents. Highly significant correlations between soil removal and redeposition RU and whiteness measurements were found. Therefore, both computations serve as reliable methods to evaluate soil removal and redeposition performance.     

34.8亿吨标准煤说明了什么——试论工业化、城市化与节能减排

2011年我国能源消费快速增长,节能减排工作出现反弹。究其原因,一方面是因为"十一五"末期以行政手段强制完成的减排指标本身含有水分;更主要的是,从工业化、城镇化进程中的产业结构调整滞后带来能耗高居不下,基础设施建设导致"碳存量"积累,生活方式转变导致"碳通量"增加,土地用途转变使得"碳汇"转为"碳源"。因此,经济结构战略性调整势在必行,城镇化必须强调节能减排。