THE INTERSTATE BANKING LANDSCAPE: LEGISLATIVE POLICIES AND RATIONALE

Expansion across state boundaries has been the dominant change in the structural landscape of banking. Forty-one states and the District of Columbia now permit full-service interstate banking. This paper reviews and analyzes these laws and their related provisions. Geographical liberalization is found to be mostly pro-competitive.
Regional reciprocity statutes dominated the interstate banking landscape until mid-1985. Of the first 18 laws, 12 were regional. However, the regional approach peaked quickly, and most remaining states enacted nationwide laws—either immediate nationwide bills or regional bills that "trigger" to the nationwide level at a certain date. Presently, 27 of the 42 laws are nationwide. At least 9 states that initially selected regional laws are soon expected to switch to a nationwide approach.
Regional banking compacts seemed inherently unstable and difficult to establish. Only the Southeast successfully established a stable regional banking zone. The location of control over the nation's banking assets is being restructured. In some states with well-capitalized holding companies aggressively exploiting the new laws, banks have grown in size. Other states that were slow to pass legislation, or whose banks are in no financial position to make acquisitions, have lost rank.
After a relatively short time, the federal government finally may legislate on the interstate banking issue. Pressure to do so would derive from the different banking structures and regions, problematic competitive dimensions, banks' supervision and regulation necessities, and eventual interstate branching proposals.     

Lemonade or lemon?: Riegel-Neal and the consolidation of American banking

Riegle-Neal altered the American banking landscape by eliminating the prohibitions against banking and branching, thus paving the way for banking mergers and interstate acquisitions across state lines. The law's proponents expected that it would lead to fewer but stronger banks more able to compete with domestic, nonbanking financial institutions and with foreign banks both at home and overseas. Detractors feared that fewer but larger banks would reduce services to individuals, small businesses, farmers, and small communities or increase the cost of these services. This paper finds that fears associated with Riegle-Neal have become mute because branching networks and de novo banks filled niches created or left vacant by large banks' expansionism.     

Economies of superscale in commercial banking

Most previous studies of scale economies in banking have excluded banks larger than $1 billion in assets. Thus study, by contrast, estimates cost functions for the 100 largest US commercial banks. ‘Hedonic’ terms are incorporated to correct for the aggregated nature of the Call Report data available for these banks. In addition, we attempt to quantify the cost benefit of diversification in the model. We estimate efficient bank scale to range from $15 billion to $37 billion in total assets, a thousandfold increase over some previous findings. These results are supported by comparison of actual average costs, as well as by casual historical observation and the level of widespread concern over interstate banking. Our findings suggest some cost incentive or benefit to expansion or consolidation among large regional banks, including interstate expansion or consolidation.     

The riegle-neal act and local banking market concentration

The Riegle-Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act of 1994 greatly transformed the American banking system by allowing the widespread establishment of interstate bank branching networks. This paper examines possible effects on local banking market concentration that resulted from the provision in the Riegle-Neal Act that allowed states to opt-in to the establishment of de novo interstate branches. Regression analysis using data from more than seven hundred cities does not provide any evidence that allowing the establishment of de novo interstate branches caused increases in local banking market concentration. These results may help alleviate some concerns that passage of the Financial Services Regulatory Relief Act currently pending in Congress will result in lessened competition in local banking markets. The author would like to thank discussant Janice Breuer and other participants of the International Atlantic Economic Conference, held in Quebec City from October 16–19, 2003 for helpful comments and suggestions. The author would also like to thank Trevor Lyon for his valuable research assistance.     

Branching and competition in the European banking industry

In this study branching costs and competitiveness of European banks are measured by fitting a monopolistic competition model to a representative sample drawn from nine EEC banking industries in the period from 1990 to 1996. In the theoretical model, banks decide strategically the size of their branching network anticipating the degree of competition faced on interest rates. From the structural equations of the model an econometric test is derived in order to measure branching costs and degree of competition in banking services. The empirical analysis captures their changing over time together with the impact of various European directives aiming at deregulating the banking industry. Furthermore the study shows persistence of segmentation acoss EEC banking industries.     

制度变迁、银企关系和扭曲的杠杆治理

该文将我国商业银行改革划分为商业化、市场化和股份化三个阶段.通过使用1994年到2003年的上市公司数据,我们发现我国上市公司的负债水平在逐步上升,但是企业盈利在不断下降.该文进而分析了在商业化和市场化两个阶段的银企关系.我们发现,借款较高的公司企业绩效较低,公司治理水平较差.银行贷款和经理代理成本的协同关系在银行市场化时期并没有得到改善.该文认为,现有的银行市场化举措没有能够从根本上解决银行坏账问题,而银行股份化是值得考虑的理论选择.     

银行竞争对制造业上市公司融资约束的影响研究*

本文研究了银行竞争程度的变动对制造业上市公司融资约束大小的影响。本文将我国制造业A股上市公司作为样本,建立多元回归模型验证银行竞争形势的加剧是否会影响企业所面临的融资约束。本文认为制造业A股上市公司面临显著的融资约束,而且银行竞争与企业所面临的融资约束之间呈现U型关系,即随着银行竞争的加剧,融资约束呈现先放松后收紧的趋势。     

转轨经济中的梯状演进和枝状演进--兼议目前国有银行的分业或混业经营问题

本文根据是否在系统中内生出异质于国有产权组织的竞争因素，区分了经济转轨过程中社会经济系统的两种演进形态：梯状演进和权状演进。指出社会经济系统以何种形态演进取决于国家在一定的现实约束条件下对界定产权的外生交易费用和不界定产权的内生交易费用之间的权衡。面对加入WTO以后外资银行的竞争，我们要坚持国有银行既有的改革逻辑，坚持分业经营原则，同时推进民营银行的发展，构建多资银行的竞争，我们要坚持国有银行既有改革逻辑，坚持分业经营原则，同时推进民营银行的发展，构建多样化的银行组织体系，这是提高我国银行业竞争力的关键，而回入WTO本身提供了推动我国金融改革的历史机遇。     

国际制度的形式选择——一个基于国家间交易成本的模型

根据制度化水平的三个维度,国际制度安排的基本形式可分为非正式协议、自我实施的正式协议、一般的正式国际组织和超国家组织。那么,缔约国如何在上述国际制度安排形式之间进行选择?本文尝试从国家间交易成本的角度为这一问题提供一个解释模型。国家间交易成本包括国家间治理成本与国家间缔约成本两个部分。国家间治理成本随着制度化水平的提高而递减,国家间缔约成本随着制度化水平的提高而递增。缔约国在选择国际制度安排形式时,将在国家间治理成本与国家间缔约成本之间进行权衡。作为理性的国际行为主体,缔约国在交易收益给定的情况下,将选择使国家间交易成本最小化的国际制度安排形式。根据这一制度选择模型,本文进一步提出了分别涉及问题领域敏感性、国家同质性、透明度、资产专用性、不确定性和交易频率的六个假说。     

U.S. DEPOSIT INSURANCE REFORM

Congress, late in 1991, enacted a banking reform measure that (i) authorizes $70 billion of additional FDIC funding, (ii) enhances bank regulation and supervision, and (Hi) adopts a "trip wire" system for increasingly severe regulation based on a bank's capital. Congress rejected a number of key elements of the Treasury proposal submitted early in 1991, such as interstate banking and expanded bank powers. The Congressional action does not end the debate over banking reform. In due time, other attempts likely will be made to restructure the banking system along the lines of the Treasury proposal.
The Treasury proposal's positive points failed to offset its fundamental problems. The Congressional action, though not subject to the Treasury proposal's problems, falls short of complete deposit insurance reform. Both proposals fail to recognize that regulatory oversight is a poor substitute for market discipline in the current financial environment.
This paper reviews problems with the financial reform process and failure of the Treasury proposal to recognize these problems. It also reviews alternative approaches to deposit insurance reform.     

THE BANKING SYSTEM CRISIS IN LATIN AMERICA

A major "bootstraps" challenge lies ahead for Latin America: finding enough savings capacity at home to finance needed increases in investment during the 1990s. The banking system throughout the region cannot carry out its role in this process, however, due to a ruinous process of internal debt accumulation and corporate bankruptcy—the domestic analog of the external debt crisis of the 1980s.
This paper briefly reviews recent financial liberalization experiences in Latin America. It identifies three factors as contributing to the undermining of the banking system and the failure of liberalization in the region: (i) foreign exchange risks that the banking system has assumed, (ii) unsound lending and borrowing practices, and (Hi) inadequate regulatory and supervisory frameworks. A case study of Chile illustrates the dynamics of frustrated reform and privatization in the financial markets.
The paper concludes that Latin America has no real choice but to pursue liberalization and to rely more on the private sector in the financial markets. The path to deeper financial markets is extremely complex, however, and Latin America must continue seeking the proper balance between state sector supervision and intervention and an increased role for the private sector. An agenda for research points to some thorny issues awaiting empirical investigation.     

HIV/AIDS AND BANKING STABILITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

We argue that the recent large increase in deposits’ turnover in many developing countries with high HIV/AIDS prevalence is associated with the spread of the disease. The point is that the need to pay for individual treatments force large‐scale withdrawals of households’ deposits, and that those large withdrawals put the banking industry at risk. In a standard demand‐deposit model where the HIV/AIDS prevalence among depositors is random, we show that (1) the probability of a large‐scale banking failure without a bank run increases as the odds of any prevalence level increases, and (2) it is always optimal to deposit, and thus to accept the risk of banking failure, to maintain long‐term investments in place.     

中国银行业改革思路

本文首先简要分析了中国银行体系存在的主要问题以及产生这些问题的原因。然后,在此基础上进一步提出了中国银行改革应该遵循的原则和一些具体的改革设想。最后,文章还对银行业的对内开放进行了讨论.     

International Trade, Regional Free Trade Agreements, and Economic Development

In 1991, Krugman illustrated that natural (regional) free trade agreements (FTAs) are likely to be welfare-enhancing if intercontinental costs are prohibitively high, but are likely to be welfare-reducing if such costs are zero. In 1995, Frankel, Stein and Wei extended the analysis to consider positive but nonprohibitive transport costs. This paper extends these models to allow for countries of different economic size. Large countries will tend to have higher relative wages, influencing the relative gains and losses from natural FTAs. For even modest differences in size, intracontinental FTAs are welfare-enhancing for larger countries, regardless of strong preferences for diversity or low intercontinental transport costs.     

The changing landscape of American Banking: The impact of Riegle-Neal

The Riegle-Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act of 1994, which became fully operative on June 1, 1997, eliminated virtually all interstate banking and branching restrictions in the U.S. It was assumed that banks and bank holding companies would use their new geographic freedom to expand across state lines through mergers, acquisitions, and the establishment of de novo facilities. There was considerable concern that there would be fewer but more sizable banks that would abandon or increase fees for smaller customers including individuals, businesses, and rural communities. This paper provides an early glimpse at the accuracy of these predictions by studying the changes in the number and size of banks serving the Seventh Federal Reserve District since the enforcement of Riegle-Neal.     

房价波动、隐含担保与银行系统性风险*

银行对房地产行业的信贷优先倾向导致信贷投放向房地产业集中,房地产价格波动对金融系统性风险的影响日益突出。本文基于银行与房地产两部门或有权益资产负债表分析框架,从资产和负债两个方面研究房地产部门对银行的风险传导机制,构造银行对房地产部门的隐含担保比例作为度量风险传导强度的指标,运用TVP VAR方法刻画2002—2016年我国房价波动与房地产部门、银行系统性风险的动态演变路径。研究结果表明,我国房地产风险主要通过银行信贷从负债项进行风险传导,房地产部门风险对风险传导强度的影响存在明显的结构性突变,银行系统性风险存在非线性加速恶化特征。本文最后提出要稳定房价、拓宽房地产融资渠道、降低地方政府对土地财政依赖等建议。     

中国银行业市场结构与绩效的实证分析

中国银行业市场结构与绩效关系的实证研究表明,市场份额越大、市场集中度越高,银行业整体绩效越低;国有股比例和国内生产总值与我国银行业的绩效之间不存在显著的关系。银行业绩效的提升有赖于市场份额、市场集中度、杠杆比率和营业费用率等影响因素的进一步优化。     

BANKING SYSTEM CONCENTRATION AND LABOR MARKET PERFORMANCE IN INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES

Using data on 21 industrial countries from the period 1987 to 2009 and a large number of controls, this paper finds that a more concentrated banking sector is likely to raise the unemployment rate and reduce the employment rate. The magnitude of these effects appears to be moderate. The results are robust to potential endogeneity of the bank concentration variable as well as to numerous variations in specification. They are important because, as a consequence of the recent global financial crisis, many industrial countries have experienced both an increase in banking system concentration and a deterioration in labor market performance. (JEL E24, G21, J64, L16)     

绿色信贷能否缓解银行系统性风险*——基于中国22家上市银行的证据

本文选取2009—2020年中国22家上市银行年度数据，构建面板回归模型,就绿色信贷对银行系统性风险的影响及其传导机制与异质性特征进行实证分析。研究表明：绿色信贷对银行系统性风险具有抑制作用。风险承担与盈利能力在绿色信贷与银行系统性风险的关系中承担着双重中介作用。绿色信贷对银行系统性风险的影响存在异质性特征。相对于国有银行、低环境规制时期银行及经济上行期银行，绿色信贷对非国有银行、高环境规制时期银行及经济下行期银行系统性风险的抑制作用更为明显。该成果将为防控中国银行业系统性风险提供重要的理论指导与决策参考。     

Information production, banking industry structure and credit allocation

We analyse credit allocation when limited-liable banks can engage in costly information production about borrowers. When perfectly diversified credit portfolios cannot be constructed, we show that credit allocation depends on bank capital and the number of banks that can operate in the same market. A concentrated banking industry, one where bank capital is held by few banks, is shown to lead to credit allocation closer to the social optimum. Moreover, in the absence of banking industry consolidation, we find that the removal of intra-state entry barriers reduces welfare and not all independent banking organizations that were viable in formerly protected markets remain so when markets are integrated.