The complex reality of biodiversity conservation through Natural Protected Area policy: Three cases from the Yucatan Peninsula,Mexico

The federal policy of Natural Protected Areas has become the main instrument for conserving biodiversity in Mexico. Established in territories representative of different ecosystems but also of cultural diversity, protected areas in Mexico have historically been created and managed with a centralized rationale, creating several conflicts with local communities over the use of natural resources. The country's approach to protected areas perfectly illustrates the complexities, difficulties and challenges entailed in biodiversity conservation. This paper develops a critical analysis of this policy instrument in Mexico, and analyzes three Natural Protected Areas in the Yucatan Peninsula: The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, the Celestún Biosphere Reserve, and the Otoch Ma’ax Yetel Kooh Natural Protected Area. The case studies serve as examples of the most common difficulties that arise in Mexican Natural Protected Area policy: (1) uncoordinated public policies; (2) the usual conflict between environmental authorities and local people over the management of natural resources; and (3) the exclusion of local people's perspectives, values and beliefs in conservation policy development and implementation.     

Spatio-temporal dynamic patterns of farmland and rural settlements in Su–Xi–Chang region: Implications for building a new countryside in coastal China

This paper analyzes the spatio-temporal dynamic patterns of farmland and rural settlements from 1990 to 2006 in Su–Xi–Chang region of coastal China experienced dramatic economic and spatial restructuring, using high-resolution Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) data in 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2006, and socio-economic data from both research institutes and government departments. To examine the spatial patterns of farmland and rural settlements and their change over time, a set of pattern metrics that capture different dimensions of land fragmentation was identified. The outcomes indicated that, to a large extent, land-use change from 1990 to 2006 in Su–Xi–Chang region was characterized by a serious replacement of farmland with urban and rural settlements, construction land, and artificial ponds. Population growth, rapid industrialization and urbanization are the major driving forces of farmland change, and China's economic reforms played an important role in the transformation of rural settlements. China's “building a new countryside” is an epoch-making countryside planning policy. The focuses of building a new countryside in coastal China need to be concentrated on protecting the farmland, developing modern agriculture, and building “clean and tidy villages.” Rural construction land consolidation and cultivated land consolidation are two important ways to achieve the building objectives. The authors argue that it is fundamental to lay out a scientific urban–rural integrated development planning for building a new countryside, which needs to pay more attention to making the rural have certain functions serving for the urban. In addition, the cultural elements of idyll and the rural landscape need to be reserved and respected in the process of building a new countryside in coastal China, instead of building a new countryside, which looks more like a city.     

Analyzing the behavioural mechanism of farmland abandonment in the hilly mountainous areas in China from the perspective of farming household diversity

Revealing the mechanism under the occurrence of farmland abandonment from the perspective of farming household diversity is conducive to proposing well-directed farmland protection policies. With a thorough consideration and study of cases in some hilly mountainous areas in China, this paper uses behaviour decision models of farming households to systematically understand and analyse the behavioural mechanism leading to farmland abandonment by different types of farming households, including aged households, stable part-time households, unstable part-time households and pure households. The mechanism is empirically analysed with a logistic regression model by household survey data collected from Jiangxi and Guizhou, 2 Chinese provinces, and the results observed as follows: (1) age is a key determinant of farmland abandonment of aged households, and as the age of farm labourers increases by one year, the probability of farmland abandonment increases by 8.5 %; (2) off-farm labourers is a key determinant of farmland abandonment of stable part-time households, and for each additional number of off-farm labourers, the abandonment probability increases by 41.4 %; (3) plot features such as land quality, irrigation and distance to home, are the main determinants affecting farmland abandonment of pure households; and (4) high possibility for unstable part-time households not to abandon farmland. A series of policy measures targeted for diverse farming households are therefore finally proposed to alleviate the farmland abandonment in hilly mountainous areas and other areas with similar problems.     

浙江嘉兴市“两分两换”农村土地整治模式探讨

研究目的：总结浙江省嘉兴市农村土地整治的“两分两换”模式的经验，分析问题，完善改革措施，为中国东部沿海发达地区开展农村土地整治工作提供借鉴。研究方法：用制度分析方法并结合问卷调查、咨询访谈等实证方法对“两分两换”模式的利益关系、协调机制和政策实施过程进行分析。研究结果：“两分两换”模式是中国发达地区农村土地整治的有效模式之一，具有一定的借鉴意义；但也面临现有模式不完善、财政压力大、基本农田调整等问题。研究结论：作为促进城乡统筹发展的农村土地整治重要措施，“两分两换”模式需采取科学规划、加强招商引资力度、积极培育农业龙头企业等措施解决其面临的问题。     

Development stressors are stronger than protected area management: A case of the Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve,Mexico

Evaluation of the management effectiveness of protected areas has become a global priority, especially in coastal zones, where essential services are threatened by land use pressures. To assess the effectiveness of a coastal protected area, we estimated the land-use change (LUC) within and outside of the Pantanos de Centla Biosphere Reserve (PCBR) and interviewed key stakeholders to identify the main stressors causing LUC. The native vegetation cover under the PCBR protection decreased by 65% over 24 years; whereas agriculture and livestock lands doubled, even within the core conservation areas of the PCBR. The greatest loss was in the flooded forest (48%), where the reduction was similar in and around the reserve. The effectiveness of reserve management was affected by drivers of land use change, which include agricultural and livestock enterprises that are run by government programs. Effective management of the PCBR has been undermined by poor management practices, limited capacity and resources, and inadequate zoning design. Protected areas and its surrounding landscapes could be considered to be natural experiments for future research, where high value land uses and conservation objectives coincide within coastal areas that will face a predicted sea level rise, more intense floods and higher temperatures.     

基于耕地综合质量的基本农田布局优化——以河南省温县为例

研究目的:有效整合农用地分等与土地质量地球化学评估两项成果,补充完善区域基本农田布局优化方法。研究方法:运用GIS空间分析法整合农用地分等与土地质量地球化学评估两项成果,对研究区基本农田进行耕地综合质量评价。运用名特优农产品喜嗜典型元素分析法,确定基本农田布局优化方案。研究结果:温县基本农田布局优化后不仅面积增加了37 hm2,调入的基本农田利用等、肥力、环境健康、地化综合质量都大幅提高,有益元素N、P富集区面积大幅增加59.30 hm2和185.61 hm2,有害重金属元素Pb的2—3级富集区面积大幅减少195.45 hm2。研究结论:基本农田布局优化是贯彻落实"十分珍惜、合理利用土地和切实保护耕地"基本国策的重要工作;整合成果丰富了耕地综合质量的内涵,为区域土地资源的合理、高效、可持续利用提供科学依据。     

Land-use change and socio-ecological drivers of wetland conversion in Ha Tien Plain,Mekong Delta,Vietnam

The loss and degradation of wetlands in the Mekong Delta has been caused by a combination of human activities (social systems) and natural events (ecological systems). However, the complexity and interaction of these socio-ecological factors are poorly understood. This study provides a better understanding of the complex social-ecological factors affecting land-cover change in the Phu My Lepironia grassland conservation area, part of Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve, Vietnam. A systems thinking approach was used to determine the interaction between the social system and land-use and land-cover changes. Results indicate that ensuring food supply and improving income are the key endogenous drivers of wetland degradation in the study area. Over-exploitation of wetland resources and inappropriate agricultural practices are accelerating wetland conversion and degradation. The conflict and unclear land tenure, coupled with a desire for higher income, has driven the community to convert and reclaim large parts of the wetland. This process is also driven exogenously by wetland access and the fluctuation of commodity prices, which in-turn results in transition from traditional to extensive cropping systems and expansion of cultivated land into the protected wetland. The relationship between people and wetlands must be central to the development of wetland policies and wetland management approaches. This will improve how land use policy supports sustainable sources of food and income for the local community and concurrently reduce pressures on wetland degradation. Any efforts made to protect the remnant wetland grassland and its diverse ecosystem by regulation should be supplemented by developing and sustaining the relationship between social systems and ecological systems.     

Derivation of an aggregate supply curve for U.K. beet production

Abstract

This paper examines the relationship between real agricultural land prices and real rents for farmland using annual data. Taking account of inflation as a third variable there is evidence to suggest that rents and land prices are cointegrated; that is, changes in rents are mirrored in the long run by changes in land prices. It is also found that the implied real rate of return in the land market is around 3%.     

城乡生态经济交错区农地城市流转价格影响因素分析

研究目的:从微观角度分析城乡生态经济交错区农地城市流转价格的影响因素,分析各因素的影响路径。研究方法:指数函数模型定量分析法,实证分析法。研究结果:随着征地地块面积的增大,地价也增大,而用途对土地价格的影响与在城市土地市场出让过程中对土地价格的影响不一致,政府的期望对征地价格有正向影响。研究结论:从微观角度对农地城市流转价格影响因素分析是可行的。目前中国征收集体土地市场虽然主要是政府定价,但随着征地制度的逐步改革,征地补偿逐渐引入市场元素,在一定程度上可通过微观手段调控征地市场。     

农地经营权流转价格扭曲的政府干预效应 ——基于边际价格理论的实证分析

研究目的：考察政府不同干预行为对农地经营权流转价格扭曲的影响效应,为完善农地生产要素配置及优化农地市场内外环境等提供政策建议。研究方法： Binary Logistic模型。研究结果：（1）当前农地经营权流转价格本应反映承包地利用产生的经济效益,由土地要素投入产出品的边际收益价值所决定;但受市场机制不完善、乡土伦理规范等多重影响,农地实际流转价格与要素价格间产生差异,表现为农地经营权流转价格扭曲。（2）政府不同的干预行为对农地经营权流转价格扭曲产生差异化效应。政府主导流转的直接干预模式会引起流转价格的高价扭曲,而通过构建流转交易平台、提供补贴等政策间接干预会缓解流转价格的低价扭曲。（3）对土地的经济诉求和保障诉求是造成流转价格扭曲的重要原因。研究结论：农地经营权流转价格的形成应交予市场,政府应避免直接干预造成价格的人为扭曲,可通过土地流转中介组织或补贴政策来间接培育优化农地市场交易环境。     

The Effect on Farmland Prices of Rural Severances in the Urban Field

The lengthy debate on appropriate public policy for agricultural land planning has had two major components: the regulation of severances of farmland and the orderly expansion of each growing city. Putting aside the latter issue, this paper reports research on the severance issue, which is perhaps the key controllable socio-economic policy variable in rural foodland protection. This paper examines data from one of the most complex areas, the intermediate rural fringe surrounding Toronto. A “severance theory” is presented, based upon a review of theories of externalities and land economics. To test the severance theory, a regression model is used. The research provides what may be the first quantitative information in North America on the extent of the pecuniary externalities alleged to arise from severances, and hence provides some of the information that would be required to evaluate empirically proposed and existing land use policies. The severance theory predicts that severance activity would increase the price of nearby farmland. From the statistical analysis, it is concluded that severances did affect farmland values but that the relationships were more complex than anticipated. Severances influenced farmer buyers to pay higher prices for farmland. However, the predominating nonfarm buyer of farmland in York Region consistently reacted as if there were negative externalities from severances and paid lower prices where severances had an influence. The implications of this study for public policies such as the Ontario Food Land Guidelines are limited by the study area and time period examined. The approach used in this study should be applied to other areas, especially ones less subject to purchases by nonfarmers, in order to define more precisely the impact of severance activity on nearby farmland values.     

To reallocate or not: Reconsidering the dilemma in China's agricultural land tenure policy

In China, rural land is collectively owned at the village level. Village officials usually have the power to reallocate land property across families on an ongoing basis due to demographic changes in the village. Realizing that frequent land reallocation and abusive land requisition will undermine economic productivity as well as social stability, the “Rural Land Contract Law” passed in 2002 explicitly reads that farmland tenure security must be maintained for at least 30 years since the last nationwide reallocation in 1998. The frequency and magnitude of land reallocation in Chinese villages have decreased as a result. However, failure to allocate land to the newly increased population often induced conflicts among village members if the security of land tenure for 30 years was strictly implemented. Administrative land reallocations then still continued in some villages to accommodate demographic changes in these places. Based on an almost nationally representative rural dataset collected in 119 villages of 6 provinces across China in 2008, this paper lays out some stylized facts about the administrative land reallocation after 1998. By analyzing the opinions of over 2200 farmers on the central policy of maintaining farmland tenure security, we are able to rationalize why some farmers support the policy while others oppose it. This analysis helps us to better understand the dilemma between efficiency and equity embedded in the current agricultural land system in China. It is further shown that social conflicts among village members may easily arise either due to administrative land reallocation or due to lack of it. We argue that this dilemma cannot be resolved effectively without coordinated reforms in household registration system which can help hundreds of millions of Chinese rural migrant workers to permanently settle in cities and release their farmland to those who stay in the countryside.     

Mapping changes in land use/land cover and prediction of future extension of bowé in Benin,West Africa

Desertification and land degradation are worldwide problems affecting soil, vegetation and the livelihoods of rural populations. Bowal (plural bowé) is a particular form of degraded land that occurs in tropical regions and leads to the exposure of ferricretes, which are unsuitable for farming. Bowé are more common on farmland and degraded savanna. Changes in land use/land cover were used to map a region of 6.7 million ha in northern Benin, West Africa in 1975, 1990 and 2010. The changes observed during these periods (1975–1990, 1990–2010 and 1975–2010) were used to predict the occurrence of bowé in the period up to 2050 using Markovian chain analysis. The results showed a considerable change in land use/land cover during the three periods. The types of land on which bowé occur (farmland and degraded savanna) increased in northern Benin by 5.4% per year during the period 1975–1990 and 9.5% per year during the periods 1990–2010, while the natural vegetation (forest, woodland and tree savanna) decreased by the same amount. The future scenarios also predicted the same trend. In the period 1975–1990, 1.28 million ha (26%) of natural vegetation was converted to degraded savanna and farmland while 2.23 million ha (53%) of natural vegetation was converted to degraded savanna and farmland in the period 1990–2010. Based on the dynamics recorded during the period 1975–1990 and 1990–2010 respectively, a total of 1.28 million ha (26% of the natural vegetation that was present in 1975) and 1.29 million ha (31% of the natural vegetation that was present in 1990) will be converted to farmland and degraded savanna in the study area by 2050.Thus bowalization will persist and increase in the period up to 2050. The natural vegetation could disappear if protection and restoration measures are not taken. It is thus important to take measures to stop the degradation and to implement programs to restore soils on bowé based on the soil and water conservation techniques used on highly degraded West African soils, such as zaï pit and stone rows with grass strips. Some native plants species adapted to bowalization and resistant to climate change in northern Benin (e.g. Asparagus africanus, Andropogon pseudapricus and Combretum nigricans) should be used in association with soil and water conservation techniques on bowé.     

大都市区土地利用总体规划应将基本农田作为城市绿化隔离带

耕地不仅具有食物生产功能，而且具有生态与景观功能。大都市区的土地利用总体规划应将基本农田作为绿色隔离带，以有效地阻止城市“摊大饼”，实现城市空间规划；同时，一方面可以改善城市的生态环境，另一方面可以实现国家耕地保护的目标。     

Urban proximity,demand for land and land shadow prices in Malawi

We assess the spatial and intertemporal variation in farmland prices using per hectare minimum willingness to accept (WTA) sales and rental (shadow) prices in Malawi. We use three rounds of nationally representative farm household panel data from the Living Standards Measurement Surveys (LSMS), collected in 2010, 2013 and 2016. The sample is split in quintiles based on distance from the nearest major city, building on the land valuation and transaction cost theory, and agrarian political economy perspectives on global and national land transactions. Generally, farmland shadow prices decrease with distance from urban areas. However, farmland shadow sales prices increased more sharply between 2010 and 2013 in rural areas (+100 % vs +30 % in urban proximity). The results indicate that the sharp increase in demand for large-scale land transfers following the sharp increase in energy and food prices also affected rural smallholders’ land valuation, even in remote rural areas of Malawi. Conversely, by 2016 land shadow sales prices were again, like in 2010, about three times as high in areas near urban centres compared to remote rural areas. Even though sales prices declined in remote rural areas from 2013 to 2016, rental prices remained high. Using farm household-level population pressure variable, we show that local population pressure is a driver of farmland shadow prices, indicating land scarcity challenges, growing demand for land, and poorly developed land markets. With increasing land scarcity, land markets are becoming more important and need to be factored in when formulating development policies that aim to improve access to land in both peri-urban and rural areas.     

黄淮海平原地下水危机下的耕地资源可持续利用

研究目的：基于多数据源计算黄淮海平原地下水位平均下降速度,揭示该地区地下水快速下降机理,提出水资源限制下的耕地可持续利用对策。研究方法：根据收集的黄淮海平原266个地下水位下降速度样本点和5个典型城市地下水位长期监测点,由克里格插值得到区域地下水位平均下降速度,并采用空间分析的方法叠加2012年耕地分布图,分析不同地下水下降速度在9个子生态区对应的耕地分布情况。研究结果：1980年以来,黄淮海平原地下水以浅层0.46±0.37 m/年,深层1.14±0.58 m/年的速度下降,成为世界上面积最大的地下水漏斗区。造成地下水快速下降的主要原因是区域粮食增产和一年两熟种植制度下小麦播种面积的增加导致的大面积、高强度的井灌方式。根据地下水资源危机程度,将黄淮海平原划分为休养调整区、强度降低区、生态保护区和潜力提升区4个耕地利用调整区划。研究结论：黄淮海平原高集约高投入的耕地利用方式不可持续,在区域地下水危机的情况下,应降低超采区的耕地利用强度,同时提升潜力区的耕地生产潜力,实现耕地生产、生态质量协同提升,在保障粮食安全和生态安全的前提下实现耕地资源可持续利用。     

基于问卷调查的土地资源领域技术竞争力分析

研究目的：基于问卷调查分析土地资源领域技术竞争力和发展趋势,为中国土地资源领域科技管理与技术创新提供参考。研究方法：文献分析法,问卷调查法,统计分析法。研究结果：（1）调查发现土地各方向技术领先国家主要集中在美国、德国等发达国家,并且“基本农田质量提升模式与等级认定技术”受到最大关注;（2）与先进国家相比,中国土地领域科技水平处于总体跟踪、局部领先阶段,专家评分集中在70分左右（百分制）;（3）土地领域前沿技术包括土地整治、调查、规划等技术方向先进的工程装备、方法与理念,未来科技需求以服务于国土空间开发、资源节约利用、生态环境保护等深化土地改革事业的成套技术工艺、流程和标准为主。研究结论：（1）当前中国土地资源领域技术竞争力呈现：“特色鲜明、局部领先、整体跟踪、落后需求”特征;（2）与国际领先水平对比,中国当前土地技术差距指数在55—67之间,落后于领先水平10—15年,导致差距的第一制约因素为政策环境,第二制约因素为科研经费投入。     

主流征地制度改革观点检讨

研究目的:检讨主流征地制度改革观点存在的问题。研究方法:文献法和综合分析法。研究结果:公共利益泛化是地方政府违法成本—收益分析后的理性选择;严格意义的公益征收条件下,产值倍数法测算出的补偿水平并不必然低于土地所有权价值;将土地的社会保障价值纳入征地补偿标准客观性差,与现行法律兼容性差;土地换保障既不能为征地补偿提供客观标准,也无法为被征地农民社会保障制度建设提供科学依据。研究结论:客观征地补偿标准缺失条件下,地方政府与被征地农民逐利动机促成的逆向激励不利于经济可持续发展和社会安定团结。推进征地制度改革首先要构建并行于公益征收的非公益建设用地供给制度;其次应当让市场发挥定价作用,为地方政府与农民利益博弈提供客观的价格参照。     

农地发展权流出、资本回流与区域经济增长*——基于重庆市的实证研究

[目的]以重庆市为研究区域,以农地发展权资本化的地票指标为研究对象,从理论和实证层面探讨农地发展权交易与资本要素的城乡互动关系及其对区域经济增长的影响,为进一步优化农地发展权交易政策、促进区域均衡发展提供相关建议。[方法]基于2008—2017年城乡统筹改革试验区重庆市地票指标交易的面板数据,运用要素禀赋理论和差分GMM模型从理论和实证层面分析农地发展权流出区土地与资本要素的互动关系及其对区域经济增长的影响。[结果]基于区域间资源禀赋的差异及要素相对价格的分化,在市场机制作用下,农地发展权指标将以配置效率优化为导向在不同区域间自由流动。[结论]短期内,由于资本约束,流出农地发展权的区域其经济增长会受到抑制;而当农地发展权指标资本化后,流出区获得了较为稀缺的货币资本,农地发展权流出将显著促进地方经济增长;同时,在研究时期内,由于农地发展权市场交易机制的构建,重庆市地方经济增长存在显著的收敛效应,区域间经济发展差距将会逐步缩小。     

武陵山区县域尺度永久基本农田划定优化

[目的]武陵山区作为贫困连片区、少数民族聚集区及生态脆弱区,永久基本农田的划定优化对该区域的生态安全、精准扶贫等方面意义重大。[方法]文章基于GIS平台,采用熵权法,以重庆市秀山县为例,通过构建耕地综合质量评价体系评价耕地综合质量,再借助OpenGeoda软件对耕地综合质量结果进行局部空间自相关分析,最后基于生态安全约束条件对初步划定结果进行优化,得到最终划定结果。[结果](1)基于耕地质量条件的划定,满足高度适宜、中度适宜和一般适宜并且聚集度为HH、HL、LH聚集的农田与现有基本农田叠加分为保留、调入与调出3类,耕地质量划定面积为5.266 350万hm~2;(2)基于生态安全条件的优化,剔除土壤污染超标缓冲区、生态红线区内农田,最终优化面积为5.170 996万hm~2。[结论]研究结果遵循了优质、聚集和稳定的思路,能为武陵山区永久基本农田划定以及高标准农田建设提供一定的参考。